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COPYRIGHT DEFOSrr. 



MANUAL 



OF 



GEOGRAPHY 

AND 

LANGUAGE 



BY 

C E MANN 



Printed By Order of Board of Education 

C. H. HAINES. President E. F. GOODELL, Secretary 

MRS. ELLEN F. RICHMOND FRANK ROCKWELL 

J. B. T. WHEELER E. A. BROWNELL 

E. T. CASSIDY 





' • 1 • » - ,1 t 

- ; 1 




> ' ■ ^ ) ' ) - 1 > ) , > 5 ) , 




Chicago 


M. 


A. DONOHUE & CO. 




407-429 Dearborn St. 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS. 

Two Copies Received 

JUN 8 1903 

v^. Copyright Entry 
CUSS ^ XXc. No. 

4> / 3> 'f ^ 



COPY B. 



&73 



Copyright, 1903, by C. E. Mann 



PREFATORY NOTE. 

The discussions and suggestions that follow are the out- 
growth of years of study and experience and in no case of 
untried theory. Each step of the course recommended and 
methods of study suggested in Geography has been worked 
out by ample class-room experience from the Third Grade 
to the High School, inclusive. All the teachers that have 
used, for any considerable time, the plan for teaching 
Geography here given are enthusiastic in its praise, and the 
writer wishes to express his thanks to all such for their en- 
couragement and intelligent co-operation in developing 
some plan more satisfactory than that of attempting to 
memorize a mass of facts, the true relation of which was 
never even seriously considered. It is to put the results, 
thus worked out, into a form more readily accessible and 
definite that the Board of Education has authorized the 
publication of this Teachers' Manual. 

The suggestions made as a form for investigating the 
different topics to be studied will not need to interfere 
with the ingenuity of any progressive teacher, but will 
serve to give form and definiteness to the work, and 
should be followed until a better way has been devised. 

In common with most schools we used, for some 
time, the best Language books we could find, but it 
became more apparent each year that oral and written 

3 



4 PREFATORY NOTE. 

Language work was the most helpful agency for gaining 
a digested idea of the regular studies of each grade. In 
justice to the regular work, more and more time was given 
to oral and written discussions of these themes, or parts of 
themes, and less Language work taken from the Language 
book. It was soon seen that the Language work growing 
out of a proper consideration of the topics studied from 
day to day was of a higher order than that obtained from 
a use of the Language book, and that, in addition, it was 
a very great help in placing the knowledge gained by the 
children in their regular studies into an organized form, hence 
the use of Language books was abandoned, and English 
Was taught simply as a necessary means of expression in 
those subjects pursued because of their intrinsic value. 
This did not obviate the necessity of learning certain 
formal and somev/hat arbitrary rules in English construc- 
tion. It is to suggest such rules, in as logical an order as 
possible, as well as to discuss some of the underlying prin- 
ciples in oral and written Language work that Part II. of 
this book is prepared. 

C. E. Mann, Supt. of Schools. 

St. Charles, 111., March 29, 1903. 



CONTENTS.— Part I. 

Purpose of Geography and General Consideration. . . ./. 11 

Commerce 23 

Transportation 24 

Financial System 27 

Home Geography 28 

Course of Study 35 

Third Grade; 

Home Geography 35 

Fourth Grade; 

Dairy Products 36 

Corn 37 

Beef 38 

Pork 39 

Mutton 39 

Wool 39 

Cotton 40 

Silk 41 

Flax 42 

Lumber 42 

First Review 43 

First Locative Geography Drill 44 

Stone 45 

Brick 46 

Coal 46 

Petroleum 47 

AVheat 48 

Potatoes 49 

Domestic Fruits 49 

Foreign Fruits 49 

Transportation 50 

Postal System 51 

Second Review ; 52 

Second Locative Geography Drill 53 

5 



6 CONTENTS. 

Fifth Grade: 

Coke 54 

Iron 54 

Steel 54 

Gas 55 

Glass 57 

■ Manufacturing 57 

Money 65 

Gold ". 67 

Silver 67 

Salt 67 

Third Review 68 

Third Locative Geography Drill 69 

Spices 70 

Tea 70 

Coffee 70 

Cocoa and Chocolate 71 

Sugar 71 

Pottery 72 

Rice 73 

Rye 73 

Barley 74 

Beer 74 

Wine 75 

Distilled Liquors 75 

Banking 76 

Transportation 79 

Postal System 80 

Fourth Review 81 

Fourth Locative Geography Drill 82 

Sixth Grade: 

Meats, Re^'iew of 83 

Cereals, Rexdew of 83 

Textiles, Review of 84 

Structural Material, Review of 85 

Fuels, Re^dew of ,. . . 85 

Poultry .86 

Fish 87 



CONTENTS. 7 

Domestic Nuts 87 

Foreign Nuts 87 

Wood Pulp 88 

Commercial Paper 91 

Coarse Fibers 94 

Caoutchouc 94 

Gutta-Percha 94 

Leather 95 

Fifth Review 95 

Fifth Locative Geography Drill 97 

Tile and Terra-Cotta 97 

Copper -. 98 

Zinc 98 

Lead 99 

Plumbago 99 

Tin 99 

Nickel 100 

Aluminum 100 

Tobacco 100 

Opium 101 

Sixth Re\'iew 101 

Sixth Locative Geography Drill 102 

Seventh Grade: 

Local Government, Study of 103 

Large City, Study of 104 

Physical Geography 112 

Study of Special Zones. '. .114 

1. 10° s. to 10° n 114 

2. 10° n. to 30° n 115 

3. 30° n. to 38° n 116 

4. 38° n. to 46° n 117 

5. North of 46° n 118 

6. 10° s. to 35° s 120 

Study of Special Sections 121 

Mathematical Geography 125 

Classified List of Topics Studied 127 



CONTENTS. 



Part II. 

Purpose 129 

Value of a Plan 130 

Continuity of Interest 131 

Systematic Knowledge the Ba? is 132 

Quality of Papers that Should be Accepted 133 

Composition Writing Should be Easy . . . _ 134 

Course : 

First Grade 134 

Second Grade . . 136 

Third Grade 138 

Fourth Grade 140 

Fifth Grade 142 

Sixth Grade 143 

Seventh Grade 144 

Eighth Grade 146 

Rules of Punctuation 147 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 

AND 

LANGUAGE. 



Part I. — Geography. 

The primary purpose of Geography, as here treated, is to 
teach how men supply their great material wants. This 
requires of its students a knowledge of the controllmg in- 
dustries of the world, including all important agencies and 
facilities now used in successfully conducting them. This 
aim involves the learning of some of the different methods 
used in the various great activities of life and the inductive 
discovery of manj^ economic laws, the recognition of which 
is essential to material success. 

The shaping influences of physical and climatic conditions 

are fully acknowledged, but it is also insisted that their 

recognition is most clear and effectual when approached 

from the human side, and not from the side of physical 

forces. Children are familiar with the use of woolen 

cloth for clothing, and it is a most natural step to the 

spinning and weaving of wool and the conditions that 

determine the location of great factories for such a purpose, 

the way in which woolen fabrics are made into clothing 

and, finally, what are the characteristics of soil and climate 

11 



12 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

best adapted to raising sheep, observing, as each process 
is considered, the intellectual, social and moral effect upon 
the people engaged in it. In the same manner the great 
food products, with which the children are alreadj^ familiar, 
may be studied and the physical condition that largely 
control these industries then understood. 

But this study of physical conditions should be the 
result of a proper inquiry as to some particular prod- 
uct; as, for example, in the study of fruits children 
could very easily see that the part of ^Michigan lying 
for some distance along the lake shore in the vicinity of 
St. Joseph is excellent for the cultivation of certam fruits. 
Examination would reveal the fact that this section is in the 
region of prevailing westerly winds which carry to the sec- 
tion the temper mg influences of the large body of water 
west of it. 

Properly followed. Geography furnishes some of the most 
helpful problems upon which children can work. It de- 
velops careful observation and requires the nicest reasoning. 
It is not the mere facts of Geography, but the relation of 
those facts that determmes the social, intellectual and 
moral life of the world. It is with the hope of helping 
to guide the work along these lines that the following 
suggestions are given. 

Although, with most children, much Geographical work 
may be done earlier, it is thought safer to recommend its 
formal introduction with the first of the fourth year. It is 
presumed, however, that all Geographic knowledge required 
for a proper understanding of the reading prescribed for 
the earlier grades, will have received careful attention. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 13 

This, with us, will include, in the second grade, ''Stories of 
the United States," and ''Big and Little People of Other 
Lands"; in the third grade, "Great Americans for Little 
Americans," "Stories of Colonial Children," "Seven Little 
Sisters," and "Each and All." The last two are especially 
used for their Geographical value. To this add the work 
outlined under Home Geography in this book and it may 
be safely assumed that pupils will be quite familiar with the 
meaning and use of globes and maps. This, of course, 
means not only the finished globe, but also the slated globe 
which, properly used, has in its use the highest degree of 
helpfulness. The wall maps, with all the lower grades, 
should always be hung on the north wall to insure less 
confusion as to direction. For this reason it is well, some 
times, to lay the map on the floor and let the children gather 
round it. They must be led to see that north is not always 
up and that south is not always down. Let no place of 
any significance in any lesson be passed without being 
definitely located both on the map, or globe, and actually 
in direction and comparative distance from the school- 
room. 

From what is stated above, it will be seen that third year 
children will need to understand maps and this envolves, 
not only relative position, but actual distances; hence, they 
should learn the meaning of the scale of a map. For this 
purpose, take some object as the title page of a book, small 
enough to be outlined in its true measurement, placing all 
important objects or characters on the outline in proper 
position, not by guess but by careful measurement. When 
this is understood, take some object, as the schoolroom, 



14 MAAWAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

the school yard, the home lot of some child, a city block, 
a farm, something, too, large of course, to be outlined in its 
actual measurements, and devise some plan for outlining 
it on a practicable scale and then place correctly, by meas- 
urement, all important objects that should find a place 
within the outline. This is worth doing well, and then 
make constant use of this knowledge in ascertaining distances 
on maps consulted. This is greatly neglected in consulting 
maps even by adults, to say nothing of children. 

Let us be quite certain to attend well to the assignment 
of a lesson.' It is vastly better to prevent mistakes than 
to correct them. 

Before any work is assigned to the children loe must have 
very definitely and clearly in mind, not in some memoran- 
dum, merely, just what we wish to accomplish by the study 
of the topic we have in contemplation and then, with even 
greater care, decide lohat "part of that knowledge it is necessary 
to have presented by book or teacher and what part may 
be gained by the child's own reading and reasoning. Noth- 
ing must be permitted to deprive the learner of his op- 
portunity to think his way to a conclusion after he knows 
the material facts. There is more of educative value in 
one such act of comparison and judgment than in twenty 
acts of mere memory. Besides, the mental act of holding 
all the material conditions of any one theme firmly under 
one's attention is the most efficient means of memorizing 
them. It is very necessary to know that the children 
are in possession of the requisite knowledge, otherwise 
their thinking amounts, at best, to nothing but wild guess- 
ing and the mental act is worse than useless. We will all 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 15 

admit that we have seen much time and effort thus thrown 
away. Further, before any assignment of work on a 
theme, the class should have gained a clear idea of what is 
contained in the topic to be studied, what are its natural 
parts and their relation to each other, and what is to be 
gained by its study. After this, work is intelligent and, 
consequently, more rapid and the interest greatly increased. 
It is here that a very large part of the real teaching is to 
be done. It is in this preparatory work that children 
may learn more than in any other way the invaluable 
lesson of hoiv to study. While the above "suggestions are 
made with reference to Geography, it is apparent that 
the principle involved is capable of a much wider application . 

So far as practicable, the thing studied, or a good repre- 
sentation of it, should be at hand. Let us beware of 
''word" ''words!" This material should be in hand before 
the preparatory icork is attempted or any lesson assigned. 
Such examples of materials, collections of pictures, refer- 
ences to books and magazines would form an invaluable 
collection of Geographical material that would require, to 
S3^stemaitze and make it readily available, appropriate 
cabinets and files, some of which the children could make 
and the Board reasonably be depended upon to supply 
the remainder. All such valuable material should be 
carefully kept. 

A most interesting and important part of the study of 
any particular product, mineral, agricultural or manufac- 
tured, is that of finding for it a proper market. In this, 
more than a passing attention should be paid to prices, 
thereby furnishing a basis of knowledge upon which may 



16 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

eventually be based a sound judgment as to values. It may 
be doubted whether we would be greatly shocked if we 
were told that pig iron is now selling for twenty dollars 
a ton, cotton at twelve cents a pound, wool at ten cents 
a pound, or that a bushel of wheat is transported from 
Duluth to New York for a cent. Our work should give 
actual facts along this line. Consult the daily papers. 
This knowledge is not only valuable in itself but it adds 
greatly to the interest taken by the children in the several 
topics. Another part of marketing any product is that 
of the method of transportation and this is the place and 
time to give this phase of the study its proper attention. 
Change of methods of transportation has transformed some 
lines of trade, created others and, doubtless, is still to 
work even greater wonders in many branches of business. 
Under this theme we must consider not only expense, but 
the time required for delivery, safety, the form in which 
the article can be most conveniently handled, special form 
of vehicle — carriage, car, tube or boat — used, as well 
as methods of loading and unloading, number of transfers 
required for the article to reach its destination. These ship- 
ments should be carefully and correctly traced from place of 
shipment to destination, whether it find a foreign or domes- 
tic market, observing all important places or objects passed 
or changes that take place on the way. Among the mat- 
ters of interest, aside from cities thus brought to view, 
will be location and use of canals, construction and use 
of canal locks, railroad construction, side tracks and 
switches, docks, harbor guides, great wind and ocean 
currents. All these must be known by those who control 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 



17 



the transportation facilities of the world and now is 
the time, when the children see the need of this 
knowledge, to permit them to take advantage of the op- 
portunity. 

An essential of the plan underlying this outline is that 
a large part of the work that needs to be done in the study 
of Geography, should be centered about the knowledge 
to be gained of the great products of the world, investigated 
separately. These products, a little less than fifty of which 
have been thought of sufficient importance in the life of 
the world to require special consideration, have been clas- 
sified, in a general w^ay, under the following heads: Food, 
textiles, fuel, structural material. Several years of experi- 
ence in teaching these topics, and as many in observing the 
teaching of them by others, seem to demonstrate the wis- 
dom of a discriminating selection from these classes rather 
than an attempt to exhaust one list before attacking the 
next. This method of selection leaves one free to choose, 
for earlier study, those topics most closely related to the 
every day life of the children and of which they have the 
largest body of knowledge. This selection from these 
groups, thus moving gradually up the great pyramid of 
the world's industries furnishes just the opportunity de- 
sired, not only for the study of each individual in the dif- 
ferent groups, but the ideal and the only method by which 
may be learned the relation and interdependence of these 
different industries and of the different classes of people 
supported by them. Industrially considered, at least, each 
man is his brother's keeper. It is not claimed that the 
order of succession of topics here suggested is the only one 



IS MAMAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

that might be successfully followed, nor that, m some 
other region of the world, it might not be best to change 
the order, especially in the earlier part of the course, but 
it would be best to make no sweeping alteration. 

The outline of each topic, as hereafter given, is not 
intended to be exliaustive, but, rather to select the most 
essential utilities m each and suggest a limit to the investi- 
gations, thereby hoping to preserve some balance among 
the different themes included m the general subject of 
Geography. A mistake here might wreck all attempts by 
this method, so all will heed this danger signal. 

Frequent and intelligent reviews are necessary for all 
studies pursued by whatever methods; but re^ws are not 
mere repetitions, but opportunities offered children for seemg 
a familiar field from some new and advantageous point of 
view. So-called reviews are frequently both unintelligent 
and irrational. Parrot repetition is good for parrots, not 
for children. It is imnecessary to waste time attempting 
to prove this. After several topics, as wheat, coal and 
lumber have been studied, the regions and cities especialh^ 
comiected with each should be located, the physical and 
climatic differences of such regions noted, different methods 
of labor, lines and methods of transportation, expense of 
transportation, different methods of preparation for market, 
and different markets reached mav be considered and also 
the effect of each kind of labor reouired on the life of the 
laborer. Thus new^ and valuable knowledge \^ ill be gained, 
reasoning powers brought into pla}' and something like 
intellectual digestion accomplished. All this is veiy 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 19 

definitely provided for by the use of Geographical Note 
Books m the hands of the children. 

At frequent intervals all the work already passed should 
be definitely reviewed by localities. That is, consider, for 
example, what are the products and industries of New 
England, of the Gulf States, of the Pacific States, of France; 
and, in this, always locate the product or industry and 
thereby furnish an occasion for finding the cause, if one 
exists, for such location. More specific directions are pro- 
vided in the note books, arranged for seventh grade. 

A very large number of the topics presented for study 
are intimately connected with the subject of manufactures 
and enter so intimately into commerce that a proper study 
of the topics will involve both the subjects just mentioned, 
but will not necessarily give a connected understanding 
of the essentials of manufacturing and commerce. These 
subjects are so important, the last twenty-five years having 
doubled their importance and the next twenty-five may 
double it again, and their essential principles are so simple 
and easily understood, that it would be unpardonable 
not to give the children an opportunity to see and under- 
stand them. For the purpose of an interesting review of 
all that has been learned touching these subjects and with 
the further hope of placing this information more nearly 
in its true relation and adding the new matter necessary 
to form an organized body of knowledge relating to both 
manufacturing and commerce, a special outline of each 
is given for separate study. 

Geography has always been presented from the stand- 



20 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

point of the scientific geographer. It has been simpUfied 
and popularized for school use, but the point of view has 
not been changed. This method of presentation has had 
generations of trial. Results fail to establish its wisdom. 
The great sweep of physical forces that shape the contour 
of continents, determine soil and climate and thereby 
decide the possible products of any given section w^hich 
products, in turn, determine the industries, the occupations 
of the people and, largely, the possible reach of their lives, 
are all great controlling truths, but quite outside of the 
experience, the knowledge or the interest of the child. 
These must reach the children through their knowledge 
of some of the many products that are utilized in their 
daily lives. The child who has in hand some bread and 
molasses has some basis of actual knowledge and sw^eet- 
ness of interest which w^ould enable him to trace either 
product back to the place of its origin and think success- 
fully of soil, climate and general surroundings. ^\Tien he 
has done this for a series of properly selected topics, he 
may begin to see something of a law that determines the 
location of products and industries but he must approach 
the subject from the side of his knowledge and interest 
and not that of the wise geographer. It is not that w^e 
undervalue the truths of physiography, but that we wish 
children to understand them, that we must insist on a 
different method of presentation, hence, in the study of 
each topic, attention should be given to physical surround- 
ings and climatic conditions that, later, by a course of the 
most natural reasoning, correct conclusions may be drawn 
regarding the great producing agencies of the world. It 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 21 

follows from what has been said, that there will come a 
time when all that has been discovered that would find 
a place in Physical Geography should be considered by 
itself and with such additions as may wisely be given, 
and the knowledge placed in a consistent, organized whole. 
We are disposed to think this may best be done in 
the seventh year. This may be overdone, and for the 
purpose of giving a definite limit to what shall be attempted, 
an outline of the subject will be found in coimection with 
the work of the seventh year of this course. 

The subject shall not be dropped without a very vigorous 
protest against any method of handling that tends to 
divorce physiography from the general subject of Geography. 
It is the principles formulated in the former that determine 
the products and industries of any particular section and 
that enable those of sufficient maturity to see the nice 
connections and sympathies of the world's life. It gives 
the glow of romance to much of *he business commonplace 
of the world. Hence, the truths of this subject should 
be presented to the children when they come to the place 
where they need to know them, which always is when 
they are seeking to properly understand the product or 
industry they are studying. Thus the study of each 
topic adds some specific fact and these facts eventually 
will become the inductive basis for the generalizations of 
physiography. 

The exceedingly venerable definition of Geography: 
"A description of the earth's surface," has made cowards 
of us all and kept every writer of a text-book on this subject 
''describing" separately each small bit of the earth, quite 



22 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 

regardless of the useless and nauseating repetitions thus 
occasioned, and utterly blind to the fact that reasonably 
bright children, who are permitted to study the great prod- 
ucts and industries of the world and learn to use good 
maps and product charts properly, can formulate descrip- 
tions for themselves that are much better because they 
spring from an understanding of the conditions that con- 
trol production. It is time to know and dare to say, that 
only descriptions of certain great sections possessing marked 
and distinguishing peculiarities are needed. Again, the 
only law of association, so far recognized by text-books on 
Geography, is that of mere juxtaposition. Thus children 
have had presented to them the hard task of memorizing 
a mass of exceedingly dry and unrelated facts and have 
saved themselves from mental wreck only by the admirable 
powers of resistence to all foolish demands and their 
nimbleness in forgetting. 

Make effective use of all that the 'Complete Geography" 
furnishes in its text, its charts and, especially, in its maps. 
Also use the charts in the large atlas furnished, and let 
the children make similar ones for comparing products, 
industries and commercial transactions. 

A few reference books that will be found especially 
helpful are Adam's Commercial Geography, MacFarlane's 
Commercial and Industrial Geography, Tarr and McMurry's 
Geography Nos. 2 and 3, Statesman's Yearbook. For a 
more complete list of Geographical books see our catalogue 
of Geographical reference books. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 23 

Commerce. 

Commerce originally meant the trading of some surplus 
product by one man, or one comniunity, for some other 
product possessed in overabundance by some other man 
or community. The labor and the time required to effect 
this direct exchange soon became apparent and brought 
about the use of a great variety of substances as a medium 
of exchange; but, as trade expanded, and involved more 
than one tribe or nation, these differences in the medium 
of exchange used by each made commercial transactions 
very awkward, and the necessity of agreeing upon some 
one substance as money became clear, and, by successive 
steps, gold has become the money of commerce the world 
over. 

From the first, a large element of trade was the trans- 
portation of products. Men bore them on their backs 
at first and, in not a few places, even in commercial nations, 
they do so yet, and it is worth while ascertaining where 
such conditions prevail. Then pack trains were used. 
But trade increased and demanded vehicles that would 
enable draught animals to expend their strength to greater 
advantage. The use of various carriages compelled the 
building of public highways. Rivers lent themselves to a 
similar use, sail and row boats were used along the coasts, 
until the compass made all waters highways. Better 
facilities greatly increased the number of people connected 
directly or indirectly with commerce and all had a common 
interest in lessening the first cost of goods, rendering their 
transportation cheaper, quicker and safer. The lower 



24 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

the price the larger the number of possible buyers, the 
quicker the delivery, the less clanger of loss in transit, the 
less the loss to the merchant by robbery or piracy, the 
lower could they afford to furnish goods to the consumer. 
An intelligent selfishness, even, demanded protection from 
lawlessness, and men set about studying the problem and 
soon framed bodies of laws for the protection of property 
rights. Again, -war always injures and, often ruins trade, 
so all interested in commerce, producer, transporter and 
consumer, have always been arraj^ed on the side of peace. 
During the earlier and more lawless period of trade, owners 
of large landed estates found a large source of revenue 
in bridging the streams and constructing roads across their 
lands and then furnishing military escorts for bands of 
merchants taking their goods across the country, but many 
of these land owners seen charged exorbitant rates or 
turned robbers outright, and this taught the people the 
necessity of owning the great routes of travel, and private 
roads, in time, became the "King's highway." 

Traxsportatiox. 

Improved highways and the protection of law made the 
transportation of goods more rapid and less expensive and 
safer so that there was a great increase of profits to the 
importing merchants. A fortune was sometimes made 
by the sale of a single shipload of goods. Such induce- 
ments soon brought the competition of more merchants 
which lessened the profits but lowered prices to the con- 
sumer. Reduced prices made possible a larger number of 
buyers and this required the importation of more goods. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 25 

causing a great increase of commerce. Then, as never 
before, the ingenuity of men was stimulated to improve 
transportation faciUties and the result brought steam power 
to propel boats, first on rivers and, a little later, on -the 
ocean, canals to avoid obstructions in waterways or to 
connect different river systems; then the railroads with 
their locomotives. But this ingenuity in mechanical 
construction and the added respect which the Vv'orld was 
forced, reluctantly, to yield to the tradesman and mechanic, 
brought to all laborers a new dignity and the possibilities 
and incentives to a life of increased intelligence and greater 
comfort. Thousands of articles, heretofore brought from 
abroad, were soon made, by the use of clumsy devices 
operated by hand or foot power, in the homes of the peasan- 
try. The aroused spirit of mechanical invention could 
not rest and the crude machine of the peasant's home was 
gradually displaced in most nations of the world, by the 
most intricate, delicate, automatic machinery, grouped 
in one great building, now known as a factory. These 
machines are, themselves, the creation of other equally 
sensitive, self-regulation machines and all such labor has 
curiously received the name stamped upon it by the hand 
work by which it was first performed and is called manu- 
facturing. The value of the manufactured products in 
the United States, for the year just closed, 1902, amounted 
to over thirteen billion dollars, or enough to build a railroad 
to the moon and still leave a surplus sufficient to build a 
dozen, two million dollar residences for the officers of the 
road. 

But modern commerce would be quite impossible had not 



26 MAXUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

railroads been helped by the instantaneous means of com- 
munication furnished by the telegraph, invented a few 
years after the railroad had been sIiotnti to be practicable. 
This'is now supplemented by the telephone and, in the near 
future, will be aided by wireless telegraphy. As necessities 
in the business of to-day, competition and a broader busi- 
ness intelligence have brought improved roadbeds for 
railroads, more powerful locomotives, larger freight cars, 
with special designs for various kinds of live stock and 
other kinds of freight, refrigerator cars and boats for fresh 
meats, fresh finiits and dairy products, larger and more 
luxmous passenger coaches, dining, sleeping and library 
cars, all these improvements accompanied by a reduction 
of one-half in both freight and passenger rates dm-mg the 
last thirty years. A postal system has been established, 
including postal cars and free delivery in both city and coun- 
try having a cheapness, certainty and celerity of action that 
would be startling if it were not so common. Ocean cables 
now encircle the world. The expense for using such a cable 
thirty years ago, across the Atlantic, was five dollars a word, 
but [is now reduced to twenty-five cents; there are built 
seven masted sail vessels, of 7,500 tons capacity, that by the 
aid of ingenious machinery, are operated by a crew of 18 
men, steamships so large that it would require the contents 
of twenty-five freight trains of forty cars each to load one ; 
and all these agencies of transportation, equipped with the 
most sensitive of safety devices, render shipments and 
travel actually more free from danger than driving on a 
well made road in the country. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 27 

Financial System. 

The consideration of this topic would be incomplete if 
we did not include the financial system by which the busi- 
ness world pays its bills. To send money was long ago 
found both expensive and unsafe and has been gradually 
displaced by the use of commercial paper, checks, drafts 
and foreign bills, and this has almost entirely eliminated 
the element of expense and loss. This system of commer- 
cial paper is, however, made possible only by another 
system, that of banking. One can gain some idea of the 
magnitude of this part of the world's business life by recall- 
ing that the annual foreign trade of the United States alone 
is over two billion dollars, an amount which, if divided 
equally among all the men, women and children of the 
United States would give to each the sum of twenty-five 
dollars; and still the amount of our foreign trade is but a 
small part of the amount of our domestic trade, and the 
entire trade of U. S. is but a small part of the trade of 
the world. A fuller discussion of this matter will be found 
among the topics considered later under the heading of 
''Money," ''Banking" and "Commercial Paper." 

Each step, or phase, of this subject reveals itself to 
children by the simplest explanation and readiest illustra- 
tion if we, ourselves, are clear-sighted to begin with. Years 
of experience with young people from fourth grade to high 
school has demonstrated the readiness with which they 
understand the great steps in the world's commercial 
development and also the clearness with which they see 
that this trade motive has been one of the most powerful 



28 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

in civilizing, refining and bringing intelligent comfort to 
m?n, that the merchants of all ages from the packtrain to 
the palatial car and luxmious steamer have, uninten- 
tionally, been proving that broad-minded far-sighted busi- 
ness selfishness is but another form of altruism, that 
integrity and Christian character are business assests as 
real as lands and gold. 

Home Geography. 
The imagination must ever play an important part in all 
successful work in geography and the concrete material 
furnished by our home surroundings is largely that upon 
which we must rely for correct images. The real things, 
the actual work and business that may be seen, the physical 
conditions about us are first to be carefully and intelligently 
seen and then the imagination may build up a larger world 
of real things, activities and physical conditions, all some- 
what like and yet milike those with which we are already 
familar; but it must not be supposed that either children 
or adults have really observed many of those things that 
years have made familiar. Inaccurate, vague observations 
is neither loiowledge nor a safe foundation for knowledge. 
The larger understanding of the world must begin by giving 
the children's observations very definite and conscious 
aim. Problems must be clearly conceived by the teacher 
and then definitely and plainly proposed before either 
interest or advantage can come from an attempt at their 
solution by the children. Irrelevant matter, however 
valuable in itself, should be mercilessly excluded from 
consideration; first, because it will confuse the children's 
thought; second, the one who is tolerated in this way is 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 29 

deceived into thinking he is contributing something valu- 
able, and finally it tends to fix a vicious habit of illogical 
thinking, so ruinous to all effective work. 

The knowledge which children may be fairly expected 
to gather through well directed observations will, very 
* naturally, group itself about the common foods and drinks, 
the fibers used for clothing, the building materials and the 
fuels, with something about transportation. The children 
can easily bring to the schoolroom samples of most of the 
cereals, of coffee, of tea, of sugar and, after they have been 
sufficiently studied, these samples can be placed in boxes 
or bottles of appropriate size and form, and, in a very short 
time, a most complete and useful cabinet will be formed. 
In a similar way, can the children observe fruits, nuts, 
spices and some of the more common special food prepara- 
tions. The home, or the nearest grocery, will readily 
furnish specimens for study, and much more satisfactory 
work can be done studying specimens in the schoolroom 
than in the home or the grocery. A discussion of the com- 
mon meats will lead to a knowledge of the kind of animal 
that furnishes each variety and some of the more marked 
characteristics in the life of these different animals. Noth- 
ing should be sought because it is remarkable or strange; 
choose rather the familiar things in order the better to 
see their great values, and let the novelty of the discussion 
and observation come from the more accurate and broader 
knowledge that may be gained by properly considering 
those things which the children m^ay have thought the}^ 
knew quite thoroughly before. No more valuable lesson 
can be learned by the children than that of the necessity 



30 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

for accurate knowledge. The child that recognizes his 
weakness has taken the first step toward strength. 

Let it never be forgotten that in carrymg on this work 
a mass of loose, chaotic, half -knowledge which the children's 
experience has already furnished should now be corrected 
and made definite, and thus become a most valuable fimd- 
on which to draw in all futm'e work. 

A consideration of the important food products will vevy 
naturally lead to the further consideration of some of the 
most important matters required for their production; as 
soils, warmth, rainfall, methods of planting, cultivation, and 
har\'esting. The further fact will come to the knowledge 
of the children that some of the foods are produced in our 
own country and some come from abroad and we must 
consider how to present as clearly as possible the matter of 
location. 

Probably no better way of teaching chikben the meaning 
of a map, including the idea of relief, has been devised 
than that of having them take a bird's-eye \aew of some 
section and then show them how to make a sketch map 
representing its main surface features. With this \^ill 
necessarily be associated that of some definite measure- 
ment that shall constitute a scale. Xo such excursion 
should be undertaken until the teacher has previously 
taken it and knows just what can and should be seen and 
has also instructed the children what is most important 
to look for. Mere gomg will not be seeing nor will it, neces- 
sarily, furnish anything educative. 

Some obser^^ation of small hills and valleys, of watersheds 
and surface drainage and erosion in convenient nearness 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 31 

to the schoolhouse should be made and will be understood. 
The value of surface cultivation in retaining moisture may 
be demonstrated by taking two boxes of the same size and 
filling them with the same kind of soil, then weighing them, 
and letting the surface of one be left untouched and that of 
the other be frequently stirred and kept well pulverized 
and both boxes be tested by weighing from time to time, 
thus children can determine, for themselves, one of the 
main objects in the surface cultivation of various crops. 

The textile fabrics lend themselves to schoolroom obser- 
vation with great readiness. If requested, the children 
will bring samples of different kinds of cotton, of woolen, 
of linen and of silk fabrics. These may be observed and 
compared and finally cut to a uniform size and pasted 
on cardboard of convenient size and laid away for future 
use. Almost always an inquiry will bring to the school- 
room the stalks of flax with the seed still on, stalks of 
cotton showing the fiber in the ball, always samples of wool, 
and sometimes of the silk cocoon. Flax and cotton seed 
may be planted and the plants observed during growth. 
Nearly every neighborhood can furnish a spinning-wheel, 
and a simple loom may be made, or bought, and thus may 
be gained a very intelligent knowledge of the essentials in 
the great textile industries. 

The building materials are always at hand and samples 
may be brought into the schoolroom. If there is a stone 
quarry near, visit it, after determining what it is desirable 
to see; the sight of a brick-yard, a tile factory or a lime- 
kiln will be very helpful, but the products of all these may 
always be had. One or more visits to a house in process 



32 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

of erection will be well. Tiiere is no excuse for not knowing 
at least a few of the trees that are especially valued for 
their liunber. Almost every neighborhood, prairie or 
woodland, has white pine, Norwaj^ phie, white oak, red 
oak, white elm, black walnut and hickory trees and these 
furnish a very large part of the world's lumber. 

In studying a few of the more important processes in 
manufacturmg, try to see but one, simple thmg at a time. 
How is coal made to produce steam? How is steam taken 
from a boiler to a steam cylinder and made to move a 
piston? How can a belt from the drive wheel on an engine 
be made to turn a line shaft in a factory? How can water 
turn a wheel? Each of these ciuestions is fimdamental in 
the manufacturmg world and each b}^ itself is ver}^ simple, 
and a little observation by the children either singly or in 
groups, after the matter has been carefully talked over, 
will lead to a correct ansvrer. Visiting a large manufactur- 
ing plant will not do it. In fact, such visits are of very 
small value to fourth or even fifth grade children. 

Children can easily be led to see that each farmer spends 
quite an appreciable amount of time hauling his sm-plus 
products, milk, gram, live stock, to the most convenient 
shippmg pomt. The amomit of time and energy that this 
vail require depends largely upon the condition of the roads 
and children can understand that a vrell roimded roadbed 
that has good sm-face drainage and a top finish of gravel 
or crushed stone is an economical investment of money. 
It is easily understood that to haul a ton of produce a mile, 
on even a good road, costs as much as it would to send the 
same material on a well equipped railroad twenty miles, or 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 33 

by ocean steamer two hundred mi^es and that on a poor 
road the expense is more than doubled, so that it not un- 
frequently happens, that it costs a farmer more to haul 
his surplus product five miles from his home to the nearest 
railway station than it does to ship it from there to a 
market five hundred miles away, he, in the mean time, 
placidly continuing to drive through mud and ^' chuck'' 
holes day after day, putting in his spare time complaining 
of ''hard times" and the exorbitant freight rates charged 
him by railroads for taking his products to market. It is 
with the highways that we should begin to study the great 
problem of transportation. 

It is frequently surprising that children have so large 
a fund of loose observation on the transportation problem. 
It simply needs to be made more definite and put into 
organized form. They will have observed wagons very 
differently arranged so as to be adapted to hauling different 
products, as gravel, coal, hay, corn in the ear, flour, unsacked 
wheat. They will have noticed railroad trains having 
cars adapted to carrying coal, loose grain, furniture, cattle, 
hogs, sheep, poultry, fruit, butter, mail, passengers asleep 
and passengers awake, passengers that are dining and 
passengers that are smoking. They may have noticed 
the springs under the passenger coaches, and may know 
something of the use of air brakes and automatic couplings. 
Help the children to put this into the form of conscious 
knowledge by learning, not only the use of each of the 
observed forms, but also to understand how each is adapted 
to its use. 

If the work here outlined is successfully done the 



34 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

children will have a very fair foundation for that 
larger knowledge which we hope to aid them in gaining. 
No special emphasis has been put on excursions in this 
work because it is believed that each teacher can best 
determine when that kind of work will be especially help- 
ful. It has its place but it should be used wisely. A large 
part of excursion work, as it has been used, has simply 
furnished an occasion for a tramp in the woods or a frolic 
in the fields. The joy experienced and the health gained 
have, perhaps, justified it, but from an educative stand- 
point there must be great doubt of their value. If properly 
planned and one main purpose made the motive they are 
wise, and in some instances, they furnish the only means 
by which to learn the things desired. 

All places referred to should be located in direction and 
comparative distance from home and the globes and maps 
used at every step to help in this matter. Have all wall 
maps hung on the north wall, and so far as possible, maps 
in books placed with their tops actually to the north. 

While working on HOME GEOGRAPHY at such time 
as will be most helpful, have the children read ''Seven 
Little Sisters" and ''Each and All." It might also be well 
to re-read "Big and Little People of Other Lands." 

Observation of physical features, of the action of water 
and of the formation of soils has not been urged beyond 
the most simple stages because it is believed that it is much 
better to leave a further study of the subject to a later 
period and to the needs of the special topics pursued, taking 
such features of Physical Geography as a clear understand- 
ing of the special topic demands. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 35 

Have the work well thought through before the children 
are asked to consider it and let the matters considered be 
presented with a reasonable regard to the law of logical 
sequence. 

COURSE OF STUDY. 

Third Grade. 

During the last half of the third year the children should 
accomplish the work outlined under Home Geography. 
It is not intended as a formal study but that the children 
should work out, roith the teacher, so far as their ability 
makes reasonable, the matters there considered. 

Fourth Grade. 

Begin the formal study of Geography, covering the first 
twenty topics with proper attention to reviews and formal 
drills on Locative Geography as indicated more fully below. 
The numbers of the topics correspond to those in the Geo- 
graphical Note Book used by the children. (Topics 1 to 
20, inclusive.) 

Form suggested for the study of topics 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 
34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 
62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70. 

Began 

Completed 

1. What it is and where largeh' found or mamifactured. Have 
samples, drawings, pictures or otlicr means of illustrating. 

2. Reason for above location. Note anything in soils, winds, 
rainfall, mountains or valleys or other .physical features as justifying 
the answer to the above question. 

3. Processes in preparing for market. In the case of cereals, 
processes of planting, cultivation and harvesting. In the case of 



86 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

manufactured products, give the important parts of the process, also 
special forms of life demanded of the laborer. 

4. Important uses. Make prominent those of which the children 
have personal knowledge. 

5. How taken to market. Forms in which prepared for shipment 
and any special method of transportation. 

6. Cities from w^hich, through which, and to which shipped. In 
tracing these shipments let it be carefully done and onl}- those cities 
chosen that would be actually engaged in the business of the topic. 

7. Annual value of the product. Use great ingenuity in represent- 
ing in some graphic way these values instead of depending upon mere 
figures. Constantly compare the value of one product with that of 
some other. Use lines and charts such as may be seen in text-books 
or large atlases used for this purpose. When straight lines are used 
let one-half inch represent twenty million dollars. Carry this scale 
through the entire note book. 

8. Exported to what nation. Imported from what nation, with 
reason for each. What nations compete in its production? 

9. Connected with what other industrj^ and how. This will prove 
especially valuable in developing, reasoning and real interest. 

10. Note any important matters in the histor}' of the topic. 
Wrote paper on 

Estimate of the teacher on the paper 



1. Dairy Products. 

All commercial products derived from the dairy except in 
a few countries are produced by the cow. In those few 
countries goats are used for that purpose. The important 
forms of these products are milk, butter, cheese, milk-sugar 
and butterine. 

The dairy section of the United States. The dairy na- 
tions of the rest of the world. Reasons for each of these 
sections being largely devoted to the production of dair}^ 
products. The old method of producing butter was from 
cream raised in some form of pan or pail and produced 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 37 

about three pounds of butter to a hundred pounds of milk. 
The present process is by the use of the separator by which 
about four pounds of butter are produced from a hundred 
pounds of milk. Saving from the change. Calculate the 
amount saved annually by a dairyman owning twenty-five 
cows. Amount of milk produced annually by a poor cow. 
An average cow. A good cow. What should the dairy- 
man do in regard to quality of cows? 

Cheese. How made. Regions in the United States. 
Outside nations. Use of whey in production of milk-sugar. 
Have samples of milk-sugar. 

What is used with the cream or milk to make butterine? 
Special methods of producing butter and cheese in Norway, 
Switzerland and Holland. Form in which butter is usually 
shipped to market. Use of refrigerator cars in shipping. 
Value of promptness in delivery. From what cities butter 
and cheese in the United States are shipped. Value of 
butter and cheese produced annually in the United States. 
In the world. Do we export and to what nations. With 
what other industries intimately connected. What nations 
compete with the United States in the production of dairy 
products? 

2. Corn. 

Corn is the seed of a large grass. Make drawings; also 
pictures or drawings of the tassel and silk. Use of each 
of these. Corn states. Other nations that produce corn. 
Why largely produced in the United States. Character of 
soil and climate required. How planted, cultivated, har- 
vested and prepared for market. Have pictures of machines 



38 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

used. How is this industry connected with the beef and 
pork industry? 

Products from corn: Starch, corn syrup, corn oil, grape 
sugar and whisky. Use of each. Corn as a food for cattle 
and hogs. Silos. Ensilage as food. 

3. Beef. 

One of the most important foods of the world. Beef 
producing states. Nations of the world that produce beef 
largely. What determines where beef can be most econom- 
ically produced? Corn fed. Ranch fed. States where 
each method prevails. Six great stock yards of the Uni- 
ted States. Economy of stock yards. Which of these 
first constructed? Why? Area of Chicago yards. 

How fresh beef is marketed. Use of refrigerators. By- 
products: Hides, hair, gelatine, glue, oleo-oil, butterine, 
combs, buttons, special foods, knife handles, jet trimming, 
paper and fertilizers. From what part of the animal is each 
of the above made? Cities connected with this industry. 
Value of product in the United States. Exported to what 
nations and why? 

What by-products are exported? Connected with what 
other industries? What nations compete with the United 
States? 

Describe ranch life. Size of large herds. Early rnethods 
of marketing beef from western states. Why changed? 
Why are stock yards being built further west? Will this 
continue? 

Nations that eat beef largely. What relation has this 
to the rank of a nation? 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 39 

4. Pork. 

Pork regions and dairy regions largely the same. Why? 
Why is corn fed to hogs instead of being shipped direct? 
Stock 5^ards same as for beef. Form of product: Hams, 
bacon, sausage, salt pork. By-products: Skin, bristles, 
gelatine, glue. Value of product in the United States 
Exported to what nations. Pork eating nations. 

■ 5. MlTTON. 

Ranching states. Can sheep be allowed to graze with 
cattle? Method of shearing. Uses of skin. Number on 
western ranches. 

Number of beeves, hogs and sheep annually brought to 
Chicago yards. Illustrate by calculating the number of 
cars required for each to accommodate a year's production, 
or the length of the highway that would be covered if 
driven four abreast. 

6. Wool. 

Wool is a fiber produced by sheep and differs from the 
hairy covering of most other animals by having little barbs 
which render it especially useful for textile fabrics and 
absolutely essential for felting. Get samples of wool and 
other hair for comparison. Have representative samples 
of the various woolen fabrics. 

Wool producing sections of the United States. Of the 
rest of the world. What are the characteristics of the 
countries used for wool production? Would same regions 
be good for dairying? 

Treatment of wool: Washing, combing, oiling, spinning 



40 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

and weaving. How fabric is finished to produce the nap. 
Regions where finest wool fabrics are made. Standing of 
the United States m this respect. Is this changing? ^li}'? 

\\'ool and hair of rabbits largely used in the production 
of felt. Articles made from felt. Country producing the 
largest nmnber of rabbits. Shoddy. Sweat-shops. Cities 
connected with the production of w^oolen fabrics. With the 
production of clothing. A^alue of annual product in the 
United States. In the world. 

Some method of graphic illustration. Exports. Im- 
ports. Is this industry connected with any other and how? 
Important breeds of sheep. History. 

7. COTT.ON. 

Cotton is especially of value for the fiber connected with 
its seed. Cotton regions of the United States. Cotton 
regions of the world. AMiy are the regions above named 
especially adapted to cotton culture? Character of soil 
and climate required for upland cotton. For long fiber 
cotton. Difference between long and short fiber cotton. 
Planting, cultivation, harvestmg. Important uses. In 
what form shipped to market. Cities of the United States 
connected with the trade in raw cotton. Cities connected 
with the manufacture of cotton cloth in the United States. 
Cities m the United States from which raw cotton is ex- 
ported. To what cities exported in each of the following 
countries: England, France and German}^ Value of 
product produced by the United States. Cotton manu- 
facturing cities of the world outside of the United States. 
What determines their location? Cotton imported into 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 41 

the United States. Reason. This industry, how related 
to that of wool, linen and silk. 

By-products: Cotton seed oil, cotton seed meal, cotto- 
lene and fuel. Value of by-products in the United States. 
Important processes in the manufacture of cotton cloth. 
Compare the cloth made in the mills of the North with that 
made in the South. What nations compete with the United 
States in the cotton industry? 

8. Silk. 

Silk is a fiber produced by the silk worm. Make draw- 
ings of the worm, the cocoon, the moth. If possible 
have a sample cocoon for study, also have a variety of 
samples of silk. What regions of the world best adapted 
to raising the silk worm? ^liy? Food of the worm. 
Conditions necessary for its health and growth. Treatment 
of the cocoons. Reeling silk. ^^Spun" silk. Silk manu- 
facturing cities of the world. Cities from which raw silk 
or silk cocoons are shipped. Value of silk fabrics produced 
in France. In the United States. Compare these values 
with the value of cotton and wool goods produced. Growth 
of silk manufacturing in the United States during the 
last ten years. Flow does this effect silk manufacturers of 
France? How is cheap labor connected with the produc- 
tion of raw silk? Will the United States probably pro- 
duce raw^ silk largely? Nations that compete in the 
production of raw silk. In the manufacture of silk goods. 
How was the silk industry introduced into Europe? 



42 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

9. Flax. 

Flax regions of the United States. Of other parts of the 
world. Climate and soil best adapted to flax culture. 
Methods of sowing, cultivation and harvesting. \\Tien 
raised for fiber it should be harvested before the seed is 
ripe. Reason. Process of retting, breaking, scutching, 
spinning and weaving. Compare these processes with 
those used for cotton and wool. \^Tien raised for seed not 
sown as thick and harvested when the seed is fully ripe. 
Method of extracting the oil. Uses of oil, and oil cake. 
Difference between linseed oil and other oils when exposed 
to the air. Have samples of important kinds of linen. 
Cities that ship flax fiber, linseed oil, paints. What indus- 
tries most intimately connected with that of the flax fiber 
and of linseed oil. Value of flax fiber of the world. Why 
does the United States raise flax largely for seed and not 
for fiber? 

10. Lumber. 

Lumber is material produced by sawing various trees 
into convenient forms for different structural purposes. It 
is found generally through the temperate and sub-tropical 
regions of the world and is generally divided into hard and 
soft lumber. The important varieties of each studied from 
samples and recognized in furniture, inside and outside of 
buildings. Important kinds of soft wood lumber : white pine, 
yellow pine, red cedar, spruce and hemlock. Hard woods: 
white oak, white ash, cherry, white wood, walnut and 
mahogany. 

Lumber regions of the United States for soft wood. For 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 43 

hard woods. Lumber nations of the world producing 
soft woods. Hard woods. Reasons for the locations of 
above named. Methods of cutting and rafting lumber. 
Kind of life in lumber camps. Important use of each of 
the different kinds of hard and soft lumber. How lumber 
is taken to market. What part of rivers may be used for 
this purpose and w^hy. Rafting steamers. Cities of the 
United States connected with either the cutting, the sawing, 
the shipping or the marketing of lumber. Value of the 
lumber product in the United States. Do we export and 
to what nations? Do we import? From what nations? 
With what other industries connected and why? What 
nations compete in the production of lumber? 

First Review. 
(Topics 1 to 10 Inclusive.) 

1. Difference in temperature and rain-fall reciuired for 
the topics so far studied. 

2. Kinds of soil required. 

3. Which of the most value to us. Which of the least 
value to us. 

4. Comparative annual value of the products studied. 
Use some form of diagram. (Let $20,000,000 be repre- 
sented by -|-inch.) 

5. Which are manufactured products. 

6. Which products require a large amount of work to 
prepare them for use. 

7. What about the education and skill needed in the 
separate parts of the different kinds of work. 



44 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

8. Is it a good, or a bad thing for the people that the 
articles made for use require a large amount of work for 
their preparation? 'Wliy? 

9. ^liere could you buy a large supply of each of the 
products studied? 

10. According to what measure is each sold? Show 
yoiu teacher each kind of unit that would be used. 

Locative Geography for Drill. 

(Use maps made by the children, the maps in their 
geographies, but especially wall maps for class drill. Noth- 
ing has been fotmd as valuable.) 

Associate with each topic only those cities of which it is 
a marked characteristic. Do not select too many. 

1. Cities in U. S. connected with feeding and shipping 
beef. 

2. All cities of V. S. largely engaged m slaughtering 
cattle. 

3. Cities in U. S. where com is made into sjTup, 
grape sugar or whisky. 

4. Three silk manufactiu'ing cities of U. S. Two of 
France. Six foreign cities from which raw silk or silk 
cocoons ma}' be had. 

5. Cities of U. S. engaged in the manufactiue of linseed 
oil. Cities of Russia that ship flax fiber. Cities of the 
world .most noted for fine linen fabric. 

6. Cities, foreign and domestic, largely connected with 
shipping and manufactm'e of wool. 

7. Cities of U S. largely engaged in handling and ship- 
ping raw cotton, either to other places in U. S. or abroad. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 45 

8. Great cotton manufacturing cities of the world. 

9. Cities-of U. S. largely engaged in sawing or marketing 
lumber. 

10. General drill. Comparing cities as to size, as to 
industries, as to latitude. 

11. Stone. 

Have samples of each kind of stone studied. 

Important varieties: Granite, limestone, marble and 
sandstone. Important granite regions of the United 
States. Of Scotland. Three important uses. Most im- 
portant qualities of granite^ How does it compare with 
limestone. Difference between common limestone and 
marble. Some important limestone and marble regions. 
Three uses of common limestone. Two uses of marble. 
Use of hmestone in making cement. Cement is mixed 
with sand, crushed stone or gravel, to form concrete, one 
variety of which hardens in water. For w^hat purpose is 
concrete used? Its use rapidly increasing. Under what 
circumstances will it be necessary to use hydraulic cement, 
and why? Do we import cement? Important sandstone 
regions of the United States. Some important varieties 
of sandstone, brownstone, bluestone. Slate regions of the 
United States. Important uses of slate. What quality 
of this rock makes it valuable? Why will all qualities 
of stone never enter largely into commerce? What kinds 
are imported or exported? What are some of the fine 
marble regions of the outside United States? 

Nearly all varieties of stone harden after being taken 



4G MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

from the quarry. Is this an advantage in using stone for 
building purposes? 

12. Brick. 

Kind of clay used in the manufacture of brick, terra 
cotta. Present day methods of making bricks. Differ- 
ences between common brick, pressed brick, fire brick, 
hollow brick and pavmg brick. Are these products shipped 
long distances? What kind of brick do we import? Is 
proper kind of clay hard to find? Value of this in building. 

13. Coal. 

Study the two varieties, hard and soft coal, separately. 
How is each supposed to have been produced? Note dif- 
ference. Location of hard coal and of soft coal mines of 
the United States, of Great Britain, of France, of Germany, 
of Austria, of Russia. The coal supply of other nations of 
the world. Number of square miles in hard coal regions 
of the United States. Coal mines are opened either by 
sinking a shaft to the vein, by tumieling to the vein hori- 
zontally, or, when the vein appears on the surface, by 
opening it direct. Method of mining hard coal. Life of 
the miner. His average weekly wages. The breaker 
boy. The door tender. The miner's helper. Use of the 
''breakers/' Thickness of a vein of coal in the hard coal 
region. Depth to which the hard coal mines are sunk. 
Important uses of coal. How coal is taken to market. 
When owners in coal mines are also part owners of railroads 
that convey the coal to market, what harm may come. 
Square miles of soft coal regions of the United States. 
Annual value of soft coal product of the United States. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 47 

Does the United State:; ex})(^rt coal, what kind and to v.hat 
nations? Will this continue? Does the United States 
import coal and, if so, from what place and why? The 
relation of coal to manufacturing. Is the coal product of 
the United States likely to be soon exhausted? How is 
this in England? In France? Consumption of coal 
rapidly increasing. Reason. Burning smoke. Improve- 
ments m the methods of combustion and steam production. 
When was coal first used to any extent in the United 
States? 

14. Petroleum. 

Petroleum is an oil believed to be connected in some way 
with the coal formations of the world, and is obtained by 
drilling. It is usually found in layers of sand and oil 
where it overflows at the surface, or is brought up by 
pumps. In some localities the drill will first strike an 
ample water supply, and then before the oil is reached 
a quantity of natural gas be released. Uses of 
natural gas. Three regions for natural gas. Show how^ 
this arrangement makes the erecting of the pumping 
stations for the oil both cheap and convenient. The great 
petroleum regions of the United States. Of Southern 
Russia. The marked difference between the oil produced 
in the Russian, and in any American region. The great 
uses of petroleum are for fuel and for illumination. To 
which of these purposes is the Russian oil best adapted? 
Method by which petroleum is taken to the refinery or to 
a market. The main purpose of refining petroleum. The 
important product sought is kerosene. Some of the 



48 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

by-products : Naphtha, gasohne, hibricating oils, paraffine, 
coal tar and asphalt. 

The value of the by-products more than pays for the first 
cost of the oil and all of the expense of manufacture. ^Hiat 
is meant by the test for kerosene of a 110 degrees. 140 
degrees. 150 degrees? The value of the petroleum prod- 
ucts of the United States. Of the petroleum products of 
Russia. Large increase in the oil used. Exported largely 
to what countries, and in what manner. Is the product 
increasing more rapidly than the demand for it. How is 
petroleum related to manufacturing? To other industries? 
T\Tien was petroleum first knowm? AMiat relation to the 
petroleum is held by John D. Rockefeller? "WTiat of his 
income and wealth? 

^\Tiat asphalt is. Regions of the world where largely 
produced. How used. How is it related to petroleum 
industry? 

Peat. In what region found. Procure sample if pos- 
sible. For what used. 

15. Wheat. 

A kind of grass. Make drawings of head of wheat, 
bearded and without beard. Have pictures of wheat fields 
and machinery used in wheat production. 

^Mieat regions of the United States. Of the world. 
^\Tiy these regions are used for the production of wheat. 
Kinds. Methods of sowing, harvesting, threshing and 
marketing. Methods of management on great wheat 
farms. Method of construction of elevator and its use. 

Wheat used for bread, for macaroni, breakfast foods. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 49 

Straw used for the production of paper and for hat braids. 
Where fine braids are most produced. Method and cost 
of transportation. Methods of loading and unloading. 
Cities of the United States connected with this industry. 
Cities in other nations. Value of annual wheat crop in 
the United States. In the world. Illustrate in some 
graphic way. Compare with value of corn crop. With 
value of beef or pork. Exported to whai nations. Do 
we import? Why? Is this industry connected with any 
other and in what way? With what nations does the 
United States compete in its production? History of 
wheat. 

16. Potatoes. 

Regions adapted to the cultivation of Irish potatoes. Of 
sweet potatoes. Why potatoes are used near the place 
of production? Why the name ''Irish" is applied to one 
variety. What cities of the United States, if any, especially 
noted for trade in potatoes? How shipped in winter. 
Uses. History. Sweet potatoes. Climate and soil adapt- 
ed to their cultivation. Does the Irish potato thrive in 
same region? Are both kinds of potato roots? Methods 
of cultivation and harvesting each. Which keeps best? 
How does this limit the use of sweet potatoes? Which is 
more generally used? Why? 

Fruits. 17. Domestic. 18. Foreign. 

Important varieties produced in the temperate climates. 
Apples, grapes, currants, peaches, and berries. By special 
study find why the following regions are especially adapted 
to fruit raising: South-western Michigan, Central Illinois 



50 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Northern ^laryland. Conditions of soil and climate. 
Regions of the United States raising each of the above 
kmds of fi*uits. "Wliy fniits are canned. Important part 
of the process. Some of the tropical fruits. Oranges, 
lemons, dates, figs, bananas and olives. Methods of culti- 
vation, harvesting and preparation for market. From 
what cities and to what cities shii)ped. Special methods 
of transportation required. 

19. Traxsportatiox. 

(Make drawings or secure pictures to illustrate the parts 
of this topic.) 

1. Old methods on land. Nations still iLsing them. 

2. Old methods of water transportation. Nations still 
using them. 

3. 1 se of steam in water transportation. 

4. Canals. ^Miere placed. 'Use and constniction of 
canal locks. Whv are not canals used as much as formerlv? 

5. Locate the Suez Canal, the Welland Canal, the 
Erie Canal. 

6. Use of steam in land transportation. (Railroads) 
Where first used in the United States. How is the railroad 
aided by the telegraph? 

7. What is meant by a ''Tnmk*' line of railroad? 
Why is a ''Trunk" line better for the people than a short 
line? Name and locate one or more ''Trunk" lines of 
railroad. 

8. T^liy boats, cars and locomotives are larger now than 
formerly. How does this help the shipper? The railroad? 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 51 

9. Average cost of carrying a ton of freight a mile on a 
poor highway. On a good highway. On a poorly equip- 
ped railroad. On a well equipped railroad. On a canal. 
On the great lakes. On the ocean. 

10. Comparative comfort and cost of travel now and in 
former days. 

20. Postal System. 

(A great variety of pictures will be valuable in illus- 
trating this topic.) 

1. Envelopes of ^'Washington's'' day and former manner 
of sealing an envelope. 

2. Method of making envelopes now. Rapidity and 
expense. 

3. Cost of writing paper then and now. Sample of 
each. Reason for the change. 

4. Manner of carrying letters from Boston to New York 
in 1790. Amount of mail matter carried then. How 
caiTied. Were newspapers included? 

5. Discuss both items as they are to-day. 

6. Compare the rate of postage then and now. 

7. AMiat kinds of news were carried in the mail then? 
Now? 

8. The population of the United States is now twenty 
times what it was in 1790. How^ does the mail matter 
compare? What conclusion from this? 

9. Use of ''dead letter'' office. Where is it? 

10. How would business be affected and why if the 
postal system of the United States were discontinued? 



52 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Second Review. 

(Topics 11 to 20, Inclusive.) 

1. Two topics that have been studied that are of especial 
advantage and aid all forms of business. How in each 
case. 

2. How does cheap transportation effect Minnesota 
wheat growers? 

3. How does the iron industry depend upon coal? 
Which iron producing region has the advantage and why, 
Michigan or Alabama? 

4. Kinds of stone used in different houses you have seen? 

5. ^\Tiat two substances are used with the stone to make 
the walls of a stone house? What is each of these two 
substances made from? When mixed together what is 
the mixture called? 

6. Which costs more at Scranton, Pa., hard or soft 
coal? At Chicago? What reason in each case? If there 
were no railroads, would we heat our houses as we do now? 
Would stoves cost more or less than now? Reason in each 
case. 

7. In what different ways do you use some product 
of petroleum in your home? 

8. What cities in the United States have an industry 
that injures the most important industry of Lyons, France? 

9. What different kinds of stone that you have studied 
could be seen in the cemetery? 

10. What domestic fruits depend for their possible 
marketing on quick transportation and special form of 
car? Trace such a shipment. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 53 

Locative Geography. 
(Topics 11 to 20, Inclusive.) 

1. Cities that are directly connected with the canals 
that have been studied. Are these also railroad cities and 
does this help or hurt the canals? 

2. Cities that are great railroad centers as far as you 
have studied. 

4. Cities that are noted for quarries of granite, marble, 
limestone, slate. 

5. Cities of U. S. directly connected with the mining 
of hard coal, soft coal, with the marketing of coke. Coal 
distributing cities. 

6. At least one city connected w^ith the petroleum wells 
in each of the following regions: Western Pa., West Va., 
CaL, Texas. Two cities connected with Russian oil fields. 
Three oil refining cities of U. S. 

7. Five places in U. S. making brick, tile or terra-cotta. 

8. Five cities of U. S. largely engaged in grinding 
wheat. Two cities of U. S. that export wheat. 

9. Cities that would handle large amounts of Irish 
potatoes. Sweet potatoes. 

10. General map drill on location, size and general 
advantages of the different cities above named. Latitude. 

Fifth Grade. 

The work of the year covers topics 21 to 45 inclusive, with 
reviews and formal drills in Locative Geography as indi- 
cated. (Topics 21 to 30, inclusive.) 



54 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

21. Coke. 

Coke is the unconsumed portion of soft coal that has 
been heated in ovens for the purpose of driving off volatile 
substances. The great coke producing regions of the 
United States. Use of coke as a fuel in the manufacture 
of iron and steel. Substance produced from the volatile 
part of the coal: Gas, ammonia, coal tar, aniline dyes, 
medicines, and various chemical compounds used as arti- 
ficial fertilizers. Compare this coke with the coke produced 
at gas works. If coke wTre no longer manufactured, what 
industry w^ould suffer most? 

22. Iron. 23. Steel. 

Have samples of ore. The most important varieties 
are, red hematite ore (Bessemer ore) and carbonate. 
Important regions that produce Bessemer ore and 
carbonate. Construction of smelting furnaces. Process 
of smelting. Production of pig iron in the world. In 
the United States. Special methods of taking ores 
to the smelter. Construction of vessel for carrying 
ore. Machinery for loading, and unloading it. Im- 
portant smelting cities of the United States. Reason 
for their location. Process of making Bessemer steel. 
Why cheaper than formerly. Wages in the steel mills. 
Compare the amount of pig iron produced annually 
in the United States, with that produced in the United 
Kingdom, in Germany. Cities of the United States engaged 
in the manufacture of steel. Difference between the 
Bessemer process, and the open hearth process. Can iron 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 55 

ore be converted direct to steel? Steel manufacturing 
cities of England. Reason for their location. Of Germany 
and reason for their location. Why is steel used for many 
purposes where iron was formerly used? Use of structural 
steel in high buildings, large boats, and bridges. Value 
of the world's product of steel. Of the product of the 
United States, ^^^lat form of steel products do we export? 
Whsit makes this possible? Will it increase or decrease? 
Process of hardening and tempering steel implements. 
Most important uses of steel. Note carefully with what 
other industries the production of iron and steel are con- 
nected. What nations compete in the production of iron 
and steel? 

24. Gas. 

In olden time, no systematic method of lighting cities 
was used, and, as a consequence, streets were either alto- 
gether dark when there was no moonlight, or very imper- 
fectly lighted. Torches made by the use of various oils 
w^ere used but, as the illuminating material was expensive 
and was not always readily obtained and stored, the results 
were unsatisfactory. But dark streets gave the opportunity 
for crime which forced the law-abiding elements of cities 
to insist on some plan more adequate. This, in many 
communities, resulted in a law requiring each house- 
holder to place a lighted lantern in front of his door. In 
the meantime, men in England and in America had learned 
that, by heating soft coal in an oven, or retort, a gas w^as 
driven off that, when lighted, would burn with a steady 
light, and also that the gas thus produced was comparatively 



56 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

cheap, but an imperfect knowledge of methods for the 
manufacture of this gas and a fear that the gas was poison 
and was Uable to produce very destructive explosions 
prevented its use in both the above named countries for 
many years, and it was not till 1813 that it was used in 
London and about nine years later m Boston. .Ifter this 
its use rapidly spread until now almost every city of five 
thousand or more people has a gas plant owned by the city 
or some private company. 

The general method is to have a series of brick ovens, or 
retorts, filled with the proper quality of soft coal, placed 
above very mtensel}' heated furnaces thereby forcmg from 
the coal a large volume of gases and oils, which may be 
conveyed m pipes through proper separators and puri- 
fiers by means of which they are prepared for general use. 
By this process, there are produced not only illuminating 
gas, but ammonia, various oils, coal tar, from which is 
obtained various medicines, and dyes, and asphalt, besides 
the solid mass, called coke, still remaining in the ovens 
One ton of coal may be made to yield 10,000 cubic feet 
of gas and still leave 1,500 pounds of coke. This gas is 
stored in large reservoirs so arranged that a consider- 
able and a uniform pressure is exerted on the gas by 
means of which it is forced through pipes to all parts of 
a city. 

Natural gas is found m many places, as at Fredonia, N. 
Y., Erie, Pa., Liverpool, 0., Hartford and Muncie, Ind. 
and many other places. In most cases where gas has 
been obtained by drilling, if the opening is continued to a 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 57 

lower level, petroleum is obtained also. This doubtless 
shows the latter in some wav to be the source of the former. 
In many cases, the gas escapes from its well with great 
force and can consequently be carried by pipes for some 
distance to be used for lighting purposes or as a fuel, but 
in most cases the pressure and the supply of gas lessens 
after a time and in many wells the flow of gas has entirely 
ceased. This is especially true in the gas belt of Ohio 
and Indiana. . In this region, the cheapness of natural 
gas as a fuel induced the building of many glass factories, 
but the lessened gas supply has forced the abandonment 
of a large number of these plants, and caused a great 
financial loss, and Pittsburg has become the center 
for a large part of the glass making for the United 
States. 

25. Glass. 

Important materials used in the manufacture of glass. 
What determines the place for its manufacture? Processes 
of manufacturing window glass. Plate glass. Cut glass. 
Pressed glassware. Annealing and hardening. Manu- 
factured near its market. Why? Important uses. Cities 
of the United States engaged in its manufacture. Does 
the United States export and why? If so, what 
qualities of glass? Import? What quality of glass and 
why? When window glass came into common use in 
England. 



58 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 



Special Form for the Study of Manufacturing. 

1. Give samples of raw material. Different kinds of manufactured 
products required as raw material at a piano factory or at a factory- 
condensing milk. 

2. In your city, what factories use water power? What use steam? 

3. How is water power obtained? What coal mines nearest? 

4. How is water power obtained at fall in a river? Why is the 
upper course of a river best adapted to yield water power? 

5. Select five cities on the Atlantic slope of U. S., each of whose 
location has been determined by fall or rapids in a river. 

6. How does electric power enlarge and improve the application 
of water or steam power? 

7. Show the connection of manufacturing and coal production 
and give some illustration. 

8. Relation of intelligence of workmen to successful manufacturing. 
What is the best market? 

9. Value of improved transportation facilities in marketing goods. 
Name improvements and explain the improvement in each case. Things 
we formerly bought in Europe we now manufacture and sell there. 
Explain. 

10. Reason for location of Stock Yards at Chicago, at South Omaha, 
Zinc Works at La Salle, 111., Cotton mill at Charleston, S. C, at Fall 
River, Mass. 

26. Manufacturing. 

Successful manufacturing demands proper raw material, 
sufficient power, workmen of requisite skill and intelligence 
and a profitable market for its product. 

The meaning of raw material should be discussed and illus- 
trated, and the children shown that the finished product of one 
factory or business, becomes the raw material for the next. 
The ore, ready for shipment, is the finished product of the 
miner and becomes the raw material for the smelter who 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 59 

produces pig iron upon which the steel maker works to pro- 
duce steel billets ; these, in turn, are drawn into wire at the 
wire mill to be used by a barbed wire factory in making 
a part of the raw material for a fence to enclose a field of 
wheat. Again, this wheat, the farmer's finished product, 
is converted into flour by the miller, into bread bj^^ the 
baker, and then becomes a part of the raw material for a 
breakfast for the boj?- who, if it is not putting too fine a 
point on the matter, will use the breakfast to aid him in 
understanding this topic. Observe some home industry 
and note the number of different lines of work that must 
contribute raw material for its product and see into what 
industries this, in turn, will enter. The incidental lesson 
of the close sympathy and interdependence of the different 
industries of the world is exceedingly valuable. 

Illustrate and explain power in the sense here used. 
It must be either water power or steam power. For the 
former, only the smaller rivers and the upper course of 
large ones are available as the lower course of the larger 
rivers is more valuable for commerce ; but, to deprive power 
from any stream, there must be a fall, natural or artificial, 
the amount of power being equal to the weight of water 
resting on the blades of a turbine water-wheel set in a wheel 
pit on the level of the water below the fall. 

Since all the water that passes through the wheel must 
be discharged back into the stream below the fall, it is clear 
that a canal, or race, must be constructed along the river 
bank by which the water is conducted to the wheel and 
that this water must be controlled by gates at the opening 



60 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

of the race and, also, where the water is discharged onto 
the wheel. Examine raceways and drawings showing 
their construction. Also examine turbine water wheels 
and pictures and drawings of them; for several reasons 
the draw^ings are more helpful than the wheel itself. A 
catalogue of such wheels can be had, for the asking, from 
the nearest water power OA^mer. An old paddle wheel, 
surrounded by drooping willows and near a vine-covered 
mill, taking its water power direct from a stream, furnishmg 
about enough to sprinkle the streets of a thriving village, 
may furnish a picturesque decoration for a page in the 
latest geography, but it is very bad business knowledge. 

Since the upper course of a river is the part where the 
descent is most rapid, it follows that it is along this part 
that dams can be most advantageously built. Even a 
twenty-four foot dam may not flood any great amount of 
the valley, while, in a nearly level course, not more than a 
six foot dam would be practicable. Hence the rough, 
uneven country with sharp slopes will furnish much greater 
possibilities of water power than a comparatively level 
covmtry. Again, the sections having sharp slopes, with soft 
rock underlying hard surface rock, will have numerous falls 
and rapids made b}^ the erosion of the swift flowing streams. 
No more interesting or remarkable illustration of what 
has just been stated can be found than that ofTered by the 
Atlantic slope of the U. S. Here may be traced an irregular 
water power line along the base of the slope from Maine 
to Alabama, coming' almost to the coast in New England 
and receeding westward with the mountains from the 
Potomac south. It is of interest to note, also, that this 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 61 

line and that limiting tide-water are, practically, the same. 
The advantage of having water power, with its possible 
industries and resulting centers cf population, near good 
harbors and cheap transportation, appears very clearly. 
New England seems marked out, by the Great Designer, 
as a manufacturing center. A serious study of the location 
of cities that owe their existence largely to the water-power 
possibilities of their site amply repays the effort. 

Bangor, Me., is on. the Penobscot River, where it is 
joined by the Kenduskeag River which carries a large 
volume of water and has a heavy fall one-half mile from 
its mouth. The Penobscot, below this point, is a tide-water 
river and capable of floating large boats. Waterville, 
Me., is at a 15 foot fall of the Kennebec River. Lewiston, 
in the same state, is where the Androscoggin takes a 60 
foot plunge. Concord, N. H., is at a fall of the Merrimack, 
and Manchester in the same state, is beside a rapid of the 
same river making a descent of 54 feet within a mile. 
Nashua, N. H., is situated at the mouth of the Nashua 
River, where it falls 65 feet in two miles as it empties 
into the Merrimack, while Lawrence, Mass., has a 28 foot 
dam. Lowell, Mass., is by a 33 foot fall of the Merrimack, 
just where the Concord River empties into it and the natural 
power of this fall is largely mcreased by a race from the 
Concord that gives a 24 foot head. Holj^oke, Mass., the 
great paper mill town, utilizes a 30 foot fall of the Connecti- 
cut River, supplemented by a 30 foot dam, giving the 
enormous power of a 60 foot head. Georgetown, D. C, 
is at a fall on the Potomac. Fredericksburg. Va., on the 
Rappahannock, Richmond, ^^a., at the fall of the James, 



62 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

and Petersburg, just below the falls of the Appomattox, 
are further illustrations. Other sections should be studied 
with the same purpose. These centers of power, together 
w4th others still greater, have their possibilities greatly 
enlarged by the use of electricity w^hereby power may be 
transmitted to a distance of 50, or, possibly, 100 miles 
from its source with very little loss, thus permitting the 
location of great manufacturing plants where they can 
better secure their raw material, obtain better and cheaper 
transportation facilities, gain a more desirable or healthy 
location for their employes, or, possibly, place their 
factory where a more satisfactory class of laborers can 
be had. Electricity, however, must not be considered 
an independent power. It must be generated either by 
steam or water power. 

The problem of using steam as a power is almost entirely 
one of cheap and appropriate fuel. The cost of transporta- 
tion, however, is a very large factor and must always be 
considered. Devices and inventions rendering the combus- 
tion of fuel more nearly perfect, have also wrought vast 
changes so that it is said one pound of coal now will accom- 
plish what would have required three pounds twenty-five 
years ago. 

As to intelligence and skill of workmen, one might profit- 
ably inquire why the attempt to manufacture cotton cloth 
in the South eighty years ago failed and a similar attempt 
now succeeds; or how it is that, until a few years ago, we 
bought steel rails from Europe and that, now. we are selling 
steel rails in the same market, or why the United States is 
now producing more silk goods than France, a change that 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 63 

is seriously crippling the silk-wea\ang industry about Lyons. 
Other illustrations will be continually coming to light, if 
we are watching for them, and we do nothing well in which 
we are not sufficiently interested to be on the watch. 

A prime consideration in marketing a product is the 
n\miber of people who are able to buy ; and this is determined 
by density of population and the average wages paid the 
mass of people always materially effected by their habits 
of thrift or improvidence. So, other things being equal, 
a factory is well located as to market for its products when 
it is surrounded by a population needing and able to buy 
its goods. This is well illustrated by the cotton mills of 
the South. They make only the cheaper grade of cloth 
and they market it largely in their immediate vicinity. 

In securing the necessary raw material, as well as in 
marketing the manufactured article, transportation be- 
comes both interesting and important. Facilities for load- 
ing and imloading must be the best so that the time required 
to handle a carload of goods is reduced to a few minutes. 
A ship load of 5,000 tons of freight is now loaded in an 
hour. All expenses for teaming must be eliminated, and, 
if possible, side tracks from two or more competing rail- 
roads must reach the doors of the factory. There are few 
small towns, even, that do not furnish opportunities for 
studying business methods that confirm the principles 
just stated, and, also, others that disregard them, 
and nothing is better than such concrete studies. The 
subject of freight rates and the changes by which, during 
the last twenty-five years, such charges have been reduced 
half and at the same time the promptness and certainty of 



64 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 

the safe delivery of goods greatly improved are very in- 
teresting. Better roadbeds for railroads, heavier rails, more 
powerful locomotives, larger cars, vastly larger boats, with 
greatly improved machinery, all supplied with the best 
safety devices ; larger canals supplied with improved locks, 
deepened rivers, improved harbors and harbor guides have 
all contributed to this result, and ignorance of these things 
is certainly unpardonable. 

A study of the value of an industry to the town in which 
it is located is one easily made and is especially fruitful 
of the best and most practical results. Ascertain, ap- 
proximately, the weekly pay roll of a local factory, employ- 
ing 250 men, earning on an average "^12.00 a week, and 
it is seen that it means over $150,000 a year, nearly all 
of which is expended locally and goes for food, clothes, 
homes and folly. Besides, there is an increased assessment 
on the plant and the property of all kinds owned by the 
employes to yield local taxes. This is entirely aside from 
the influence such a factory and its employes have upon 
society, education and religion. 

Finally, after all the essential matters entering into 
successful manufacturing have been intelligently discussed, 
try to determine why great steel mills w^re located at South 
Chicago, stock yards at South Omaha, a paper mill at 
Kaukauna, Wis., zinc works at La Salle, 111., and so on. 
The thoughfulness and reasoning required are both helpful 
and stimulating. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 65 



Special Form for Study of Money. 

1. Illustrate barter and its difficulties. 

2. The way in which some medium of exchange helps trade. 

3. Give illustration of each kind of money mentioned in the Manual. 

4. Show how money that is good in one tribe or nation may be 
changed when it trades with other nations. 

5. Effect of increase of commerce on what would be best to use 
for money. 

6. The way in which money is a measure of the values of various 
commodities. 

7. The difficulties of having some common product, cattle for in- 
stance, used as a measure of values of other things, as land, clothing, 
weapons, building material. Think how the people would be com- 
pelled to make change. 

8. Uses of gold and silver besides that for money. 

9. Real value of wood or iron compared mth gold or silver. 
10. What is done at a mint? 



27. Money. 

Illustrate barter among rude people of the same tribe. 
Note the time and effort necessary for a man, having a 
surplus of any commodity, to find some other man who 
wished it and who also has something he can spare that is 
wanted by the first man. As occasions for barter increased 
and higher ideals of life developed, the complexity of the 
situation would lead to the discovery of some substance, 



66 MAhWAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

easily portable and not subject to serious change from 
handling, that could be received for surplus products and 
then given to others in exchange for things desired. This 
medium of exchange might be cattle (see meaning of words 
feudal, pecuniary), smoothly rounded pebbles, small shells, 
pieces of iron, bits of copper, precious stones, grains of 
silver or gold. It would matter little what was chosen 
so that all in the tribe or nation agreed on it, but when 
expansion of the trade, seeking greater comforts or luxuries, 
reached out to some other tribe or nation it would be 
necessar}^ that this new people should be satisfied with 
whatever is offered as a medium of exchange, and this 
might require the selection, b}^ one or both peoples con- 
cerned, of some different substance believed to be better 
adapted to purposes of trade than the old one. Improving 
civilization would reveal the advantages of commerce to a 
constantly increasing number of nations and this would 
force some agreement as to a common standard, as a 
measure of values among all trading nations. This has 
resulted in the adoption of gold as the money of the com- 
mercial world. 

The true use and value of money and the part it is 
required to play m business life should be clearly seen by 
the children and this requires some positive and simple 
teaching. The vicious and erroneous ideas held on this 
subject are sufficient warrant for the effort necessary to 
correct them. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 67 

28. Gold. 

Important mines of the United States. Of other parts 
of the world. Distinguish between placer mining, and 
quartz mining. Treatment of gold ores. Cyanide process. 
World's annual production, two hundred sixty-five 
million dollars. Annual production of the United States, 
eighty-eight million. Of the Transvaal. Of Australia. One- 
fourth of the gold output used in the arts, the remainder 
coined. Reason for the use of alloys in gold coin. Effect 
upon values of a large increase in the production in gold. 
What is done in the mint. Is gold imported and exported? 
Cities of the United States most largely connected with 
gold mining. Cities in which mints are located. Is gold 
connected intimately with any other industry? How? 

29. Silver. 

Silver mines of the world. Treatment of silver ore for 
refining. Annual output of the world, one hundred ten 
million dollars. Of the United States, thirty-seven mil- 
lion. One-sixth is used for coin, the remainder used 
in the arts. Would a large increase in the production of 
silver effect business as a similar increase in the production 
of gold would do? Are alloys necessary in the coining 
of silver? Connection of silver with other industries. 

30. Salt. 

Salt is found either as a brine or in the form of a rock. 
Regions of the United States where it is found as a brine. 
As a rock. Process of preparation for use in each case. 



38 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Great salt mines outside of the United States. Preparation 
of salt from sea water. Important uses: As a seasoning 
for food, as a preservative, in manufacturing of chlorine 
for bleaching cloth and straw, and for making compounds 
of soda used in the manufacture of soap and glass. Reasons 
for saltness of lakes that have no outlet. Advantages and 
disadvantages of the saltness of the ocean. Form in which 
shipped. Value of the United States product. AMiy much 
cheaper now than formerly. Life in one of the oldest salt 
mines of Europe. 

Third Review. 

(Topics 21 to 30, Inclusive.) 

1. How is money a means of saving time in carrying 
on business? ^liy is not Indian Wampum good money 
for business? 

2. ^\liich is the cheapest building material here, brick, 
limestone or pine lumber? Why? 

3. Compare the value of the gold mined, annually, in 
U. S. with that of the hay crop, with the value of the eggs 
laid, with the value of the meats handled in the Chicago 
Stock Yards. Suppose no gold was mined in the world 
for a year, what? Make same supposition as to other 
products. Compare. 

4. Select five regions of U. S. especially adapted to 
manufacturing and show why in each case. 

5. How does manufacturing help the farmer? The 
ranch owner? 

6. Why is salt cheap? If there were no mines, how 
could it be obtained? How would a tax on salt be hard 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 69 

for the very poor people? Has any country ever had such 
a law? 

7. Where is the iron ore of Northern ]\lichigan made 
into iron and steel products. Trace the route for shipment. 
What makes it possible to transport the ore so far and yet 
have the products cheap? ^ 

8. How is the iron industry connected with the building 
of great ships, high buildings, railroads? Locate three 
cities that build large ships. 

9. How is coke connected with steel maknig? Why 
must coke ovens be near coal mines? Give two places so 
situated. 

10. Name the food products studied so far. The textile 
fibers. The building materials. The fuels. 

Locative Geography. 
(Topics 21 to 30, Inclusive.) 

1. Ten cities of the U. S. connected with the production 
of pig iron and steel. 

2. Two cities of L'. S. producing coke to be used in 
making steel. 

3. Five L^. S. cities that make large amounts of glass. 

4. Ten U. S. cities that are important because of a fall 
or rapid in a river. 

5. Ten U. S. cities that owe their location and growth 
to the nearness of coal. 

6. Gold mining cities of the world. 

7. Cities dej)ending in any large way on Silver Mining. 

8. Salt-producing cities of U. S. 



70 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

9. Ten foreign cities largely engaged in the production 
of iron and steel. 

10. Compare above cities as to size, as to industries 
and as to climate. 

31. Spice. 

Important substance used as spice and for seasoning 
purposes are black and white pepper, cinnamon, cloves, 
allspice, nutmegs, mace and ginger. Be certain that the 
children note by observation each of these. Regions in 
which each is produced. From what cities shipped and 
for what purpose used. 

32. Tea. 

What it is. Have samples of leaf and drawings and 
pictures of the plant. Character of the plant. Way in 
which the plant grows naturally and how this is changed 
by cultivation and why. Two raising countries. Picking, 
fermenting, firing and boxing the tea for shipment. Dif- 
ferences in the preparation of green and of black tea. 
Exporting cities. Importing cities. Tea drinking coun- 
tries. Number of pounds of tea used per capita in England. 
In United States. 

33. Coffee. 

What it is. Illustrate by drawings, pictures and samples 
of the berry. Where it is grown. Character of the tree. 
How changed by cultivation. When the crop is harvested 
and how. Why it can be raised only in semi-tropical 
regions. Processes in preparing the berry for market. 
The effect of roasting the berry. Artificially produced 
coffee. Uses of the iTulp, the outside covering of the berry 



MAX UAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 71 

and the leaf of the tree. Number of pounds of coffee used 
per capita in United States. Other coffee drinking nations. 
Four varieties. From what cities does United States 
import? Coffee raising regions of the world. 

34. Cocoa and Chocolate. 

What it is. Character of the plant upon which it grows. 
Preparation of the bean for market. Subsequent treat- 
ment to produce commercial chocolate and to produce 
cocoa. Cities in which this is done. Sweet chocolate. By- 
products: Cocoa shells. Cocoa butter. Cities from which 
the chocolate bean is shipped. Cities of the United States 
to which it is largely shipped. United States consumes 
about twelve million pounds of chocolate per annum. Choco- 
late drinking nations. About when was each of these three 
drinks introduced into Europe? 

35. Sugar. 

Kinds: Cane, beet, grape and maple. Cane sugar. 
Where raised? Climatic conditions required. How plant- 
ed, cultivated, harvested and method of producing raw 
sugar from the juice of the cane. Value of the annual 
product of cane sugar. Molasses. Beet sugar. AVhere 
largely produced? Planting, cultivating, and method of 
producing raw sugar from beets. Value of the annual 
product of beet sugar. Grape sugar may be produced 
from nearly all fruits, but the great source for grape sugar 
is corn. Uses of grape sugar. Important processes 
in its production. Maple sugar is produced from the sap 
of the hard maple tree. Maple regions of the United States, 



72 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY , 

When is the sap taken from the tree and why? Method 
of producing sugar from it. Amount produced in the 
United States. Refining cane and beet sugar. Cities of 
the United States engaged in this. Cities from which the 
United States imports cane sugar. Beet sugar. Amount 
of cane sugar produced in the United States. Of beet 
sugar produced in the United States. Amount of sugar 
consumed in the United States annually. Per capita used. 
Which is increasing more rapidly in production, cane or 
beet sugar? Duty on sugar in the United States about 
sixty million dollars, or one-fourth of all the duties received 
by the United States. Is the sugar industry connected 
with any other industry and how? What nations compete 
in the production of sugar? 

36. Pottery. 

All forms of pottery are produced from clay of a finer 
quality than that used in either brick or tile. Study 
pottery under three forms. Earthen ware made of a clay 
that is porous after baking, stone ware that melts in baking 
and fills the pores, and porcelain, or chinaware, made from 
finer clay that becomes translucent after baking. Regions 
for the production of pottery especially in the United 
States, England, France, Germany and Austria. Impor- 
tant uses? Reasons why only the more expensive kinds 
will find a market far from the place of manufacture. 
Cities in above named countries engaged in the production 
of chinaware. Does the United States export? Imports 
about nine million dollars worth per annum. Quality of 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 73 

the pottery imported? From what countries? Before 
glazing, pottery is known as ''biscuit." Process of glazing? 
Method of decoration on the- biscuit and on the glazing? 
The following kinds of china may easily be obtained 
from the homes for study: Majolica, Limoges w^are, 
Haviland china, Sevres, Dresden, Munich, Menna, Wedge- 
wood and Rookwood. Samples should be in hand for 
observation and study before this topic is commenced. 

37. Rice. 

Rice the seed of a grass. Rice regions of the United 
States. Of the rest of the world. Reasons that determine 
the location of rice culture. Recent methods of rice culture 
in the United States. Methods used in Eastern countries. 
How is rice prepared for market? 

Japan produces some of the best varieties of rice. Im- 
portant use of this grade. In what form shipped. AVhat 
cities of the United States handle rice largely? Do we 
import? Related to what other industry? What nations 
compete in rice production? Number of people using 
rice compared with those who use rye or w^heat. 

38. Rye. 

Regions of the world engaged in raising rye. Climate 
and soil required. Method of sowing and harvesting. 
What class of people use rye largely and why? Is this 
changing? What nations, if any, export rye? Number 
of people using rye compared with those using wheat for 
bread. 



74 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

39. Barley. 

This is the hardest of all grains and is grown successfully 
farther north than any other, hence it is raised, for food, in 
Northern Russia, Scotland and a few other countries. Its 
most important use, however, is in making malt for the 
production of beer. For this purpose it is largely raised 
in Turkey, Austria, Germany and the United States. 

When used as a food it is usually baked in the form of 
cakes. It has so small an amount of gluten in it that 
dough made from the flour does not hold the gas formed 
by the yeast and, consequently will not ''rise" as dough 
made of wheat or rye will do. Sometimes the outside of 
the kernel is rubbed off in a machine and cooked by itself 
when the middle of the kernel still uncooked is called pearl 
barley. United States crop? Russian crop? Compare 
with the value of wheat, corn, rye. 

It is the grain earliest used by man as a food. Grains 
have been found where the Swiss Lake dwellers lived in the 
"Stone age'' and in Egyptian tombs where it may have been 
placed more than six thousand years ago. 

40. Beer. 

What cities of the United States largely engaged in the 
manufacture of beer? Material used in its manufacture? 
How fermentation is produced? How stopped? In what 
form shipped to market? Does the United States export? 
Import? Connection with what other industries? Beer 
drinking nations. In what way is this determined by 
climate? The world's production of beer, five thousand 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 75 

million gallons. Germany's production, fifteen million 
gallons. The United Kingdom, twelve hundred million. 
United States, one thousand million. States of the United 
States in order of their production of beer: New York, 
Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio and Wisconsin. 

41. Wines. 

Produced from grapes. Wine producting countries of 
the world. Reason for the location of this industry. How 
it is prepared for market. In what packages placed and 
how harmful changes are prevented in wine. Cities largely 
engaged in this industry. A^alue of the wine crop of the 
world. With what other industr}^ coimected and how? 
The amount consumed per capita in France, in Portugal 
and in Italy. Connection between wine consmnption and 
climate. 

42. Distilled Liquors. 

What cities of the United States largely engaged in their 
manufacture? Materials used. General idea of the proc- 
esses of distillation. Countries most largely engaged in 
this industry. Scotland, Ireland, United States and 
Canada. A'alue of distilled liquor produced annually in 
the United States. Revenue derived from distilled liquors 
and beer annually in the United States. What other 
nations, if any, derive revenue from a similar source? 
EfTect of alcoholic drinks on the nervous system. On the 
process of digestion. On the fmictions of the liver. On 
the circulation . Regulations of large business concerns with 
regard to the use of distilled liquor by their workmen. 



76 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 



Suggested Outline for the Study of the Topic op Banking. 

1. Differences in the business of the old-time shopkeeper and the 
•mporters. 

2. Compare dangers to the above classes from robbers. 

3. How the business of each class wps rendered more secure. 

4. Old meaning of bankrupting. 

5. Letters of credit. 

6. Reasons for all merchants favoring a well executed system of 
laws. Would the people who bought of the merchants favor good laws? 
Why? 

7. Meaning of bank notes and reason for using them. Harm that 
might come from it. 

8. Reason for having quite strict laws to control the issue of paper 
money. 

9. Paper money is not "real" money. What is? 
10. Reasons why all nations use paper money. 



43. Banking. 

By the time people had learned the real use and ne- 
cessity of money in carrying on trade, there had developed 
two classes of men engaged in it, one class occupied small 
places of business, usually called shops, in which thej^ offered 
for sale various kinds of wares and another class that 
traveled to distant places for the purpose of buying such 
goods, either novel or familiar, as it was thought would 
find a ready and profitable market at home. Both these 
classes would require the use ol considerable sums of ready 
money and would invite attack from the lawless classes, 
or robbers. The shopkeepers could more easily find 
places of comparative safety, but the traveling importer 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 77 

would be lelt quite at the mercy of highwaymen, for this 
class of merchants was obhgecl to carry with them money 
or goods with which to pay for purchases. It was 
necessary for this class to go to the country where they 
obtained their goods because they did not know just what 
they would find at any given place and no systematic way 
had been yet provided for sending wTitten orders. 

These dangers resulted in serious losses to both classes 
of merchants. The shopkeepers made iron chests and 
boxes by which to secure their valuables from theft, but 
even this brought only partial security, after a time gold- 
smiths and jewelers, who w^re compelled by their business 
to have places of great security offered, if properly paid, 
to let their neighbors share that security, but soon there 
grew up a distinct class of men in the cities who made it 
their business, for a consideration, to care for the money 
and other valuables of those who cared to employ them. 
For this purpose they constructed especially secure places 
and had these places of deposit guarded by watchmen. 
These places have now become heavily walled brick vaults 
in which are placed massive, double-walled steel safes that 
not only protect from thieves but from fire as well. These 
men with whom others left their money for safety became 
known as bankers, or '^ benchers,'' because they had a 
''counter" or bench on which money or other valuables 
were placed by their customers to be counted or examined. 
If a banker did not deal honestly or keep his promises 
he was forced out of business and the officers of the 
law broke the banker's bench or counter and thus quite 
literally bank (or bench) rupted him. 



78 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

This business (of banking) proved remunerative and 
soon in all cities of an}^ business pretensions there were a 
number of bankers. These men were quick to see how 
they might extend their business and found one ready 
means in helping the traveling merchants to avoid the 
danger of loss from robbery. These men had been obliged 
to carry large sums of money on their journeys and not 
infrequently lost it all and their lives with it. Bankers 
offered these merchants the opportunity of depositing money 
or jewels and receiving in return therefor a letter to a banker 
in some city which the traveling merchant wished to 
visit, enabling him to draw the value of his deposit, less 
the amount paid for the accommodation, in the foreign city. 
This could be repeated in any city having a bank as often 
as the safety of business demanded. In this way the 
merchant would need to carry with him only enough money 
to pay his traveling expenses. This was a great gain to 
the merchant and also lessened the temptation to law- 
lessness. In time, these ''letters of credit" became very 
numerous and are now a necessary part of business trans- 
actions, and we hear them called drafts, or bills of exchange. 

Bankers, in sending money to their customers in the 
same town, even, often suffered serious loss from highway- 
men and, to avoid this, instead of sending the money, there 
grew up the practice of sending their notes, payable on 
demand ; this enabled the customers to call at the bank, at 
any time, and get their money. But, instead of calling 
for the money, these customers would frequently pass this 
banker's note on to some other man with whom they were 
doing business and so it might continue to pass through 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 70 

several hands before it would reach the bank. This note 
was much more easily carried and less likely to attract 
highwaymen than gold or silver and, if the banker who 
signed it was good, business men preferred it to money. 
This soon led many bankers to issue their notes in consider- 
able numbers and for different amounts to be used as a 
substitute for money. This arrangement would be entirely 
satisfactory so long as the bankers who issued them were 
both willing and able to pay them; but we can easily 
surmise that it v/ould not be long before some over-hopeful 
or some dishonest banker would send out an over-issue 
and the holders of their notes would suffer. Then it would 
be necessary for the city or the state or nation to pass laws 
that should guard the issue of bank notes, or bills, and thus 
it comes about that such laws exist to-day in every com- 
mercial nation of the world, and although these laws have 
not always shielded the holders of bank notes from serious 
loss, they have greatly aided and are constantly improving, 
and the great convenience of "paper money" for general 
circulation in business will doubtless always keep it in use. 

Transportation. 

1. Business value of refrigeration in cars and boats. 

2. Advantages of having sleeping and dining cars. 

3. Travel by stage compared with present methods. 

4. How does improved transportation permit each 
section of the world to do what it is best adapted to? 

5. Does this help the laborer? How? 

6. In what regions of the world must each community 
produce all the products it uses? Is this a good thing? 



80 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

7. Estimate the number of carloads of freight required 
to load one ocean steamer carrjdng 20,000 tons. 

8. Value of good system of laws in commerce. '\i\Tiat 
people are benefited? 

9. Use of ship canals. Locate five. 

10. Relation of transportation facilities to general 
intelhgence. Mention nations to illustrate. 

Postal System. 

1. T\nien were postal cars first used? ^Tio first urged 
their use? Number of clerks now employed in them? 

2. What is gained by their use? 

3. The Postal System of the U. S. has never paid 
expenses. Why should the Government reduce rates of 
postage, give free delivery in cities and the country? 

4. '\\Tiat is the postal Union? 

5. ^liat nations have joined it? ^Hiy? 

6. Money order department, what is it and why 
established? Amount of money handled annually? 

7. Connection between quick mail service and the 
number of daily papers sold? 

8. Amomit of business transacted daily in the Post 
Office of Chicago or other large city? 

9. Amount of mail on one large Atlantic steamer. 
10. "WTiat officer is at the head of this department in 

U. S.? 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 81 

Fourth Review. 
(Topics 31 to 42, Inclusive.) 

1. Two countries that produce ginger. Any other 
spice produced in same countries? Name three. 

2. Distinguish between mace and nutmeg and locate 
countries that produce them. 

3. Show difference and similarities of white pepper, 
black pepper and cayenne pepper. What cities would 
export? 

4. What nation is the largest user of coffee, of tea, of 
cocoa? Give pounds of each per capita. 

5. Name two cities from which U. S. would get each 
of the products named in No. 4. 

6. What countries compete most sharply for the sugar 
trade of U. S.? AYhat part of the sugar used does U. S. 
produce? 

7. Will U. S. buy more or less sugar in the future than 
now? Give reason for your answer. 

8. Per capita consumption of sugar in United Kingdom. 
In U. S. Represent, in some graphic way, the amount 
consumed by U. S. in a year. 

9. Compare conditions that are necessary to raise 
rye with those for barley. 

10. Income in Great Britain and in U. S. from tax 
on alcoholic drinks. Per capita consumption of wine in 
France, in Portugal, in Italy. Of beer in Belgium^ in 
United Kingdom, in U. S. 



82 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Locative Geography. 

(Topics 31 to 42, Inclusive.) 

1. Cities from which we might import each of the 
following: Cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs, allspice, black 
pepper. 

2. Cities from which we import tea. Cities from which 
we import coffee. 

3. Cities from which we import cocoa. Cities in U. S. 
in which chocolate is manufactured. 

4. Cities from which U. S. imports cane sugar. Beet 
sugar. Three cities in U. S. that refine large amounts of 
sugar. 

5. Three pottery making cities of U. S. Two of 
England. Tw^o of France. Two of Germany. One of 
Austria. 

6. Three cities of U. S. through which American rice 
would be handled. Three foreign cities from which rice 
w^ould be imported to U. S. 

7. Four of the largest cities in each of four nations 
of Europe in which rye is an important food product. 

8. Three great cities in each of two European nations 
where barley is an important food product. 

9. The greatest banking city in each of the following 
nations: England, United States, France, Germany, 
Russia, Austria-Hungary, Brazil, Argentina, Canada. 

10. Compare the foreign cities above named, as to 
climate, industries and any marked characteristics of the 
people. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 83 

Sixth Grade. 

The work of the year covers topics 46 to 70, inclusive, 
with reviews and formal drills in Locative Geography as 
indicated. 

Review of Meats. 

1. What determines that* a region shall be used for 
grazing purposes? 

2. Cattle grazing regions of the world. 

3. Sheep grazing regions of the world. 

4. Cattle feeding regions of the world. 

5. Connection between fattening hogs and fattening 
cattle. 

6. Relation of sheep raising to Australia. 

7. Regions especially productive of oysters, of salmon, ^ 
of cod, of herring, of sardines, of mackeral. 

8. Relation of meat production and corn production. 

9. Relation between meats and cereals. 

10. What nations compete most sharply with U. S. 
in meat production? Will this competition probably 
change in the future? Why? 

Review^ of Cereals. 

1. Compare the values and usefulness of the five most 
important cereals. 

2. What is most important in determining the loca- 
tion of the great wheat producuig regions of the world? 

3. Is rye preferred to wheat in those regions of the 
world where it is largely used or chosen for other purposes? 



84 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

4. What advantages has corn as a human food? 
Where most largely used now? 

5. By-products of corn. 

6. A shortage in the Russian wheat crop would offer 
w^hat markets to American wheat? 

7. What, especially, makes the India wheat crop un- 
certain? 

8. Any reason for rice continuing to be the great food 
crop of China? 

9. Any connection between the general intelligence 
and character of a people and the character of their foods? 

10. Coffee drinking nations. Tea drinking nations. 
Wine drinking nations. Beer drinking nations. Has 
location anything to do with this? 

Review of Textiles. 

1. What cities export large amounts of raw silk, raw 
wool, flax fiber, raw cotton? 

2. Cotton manufacturing centers of the world with 
reason for location. 

3. Note in No. 2 where water power has been the 
determining factor. 

4. Nations where -the textile fabrics are largely made 
by hand. ^Tiy? 

5. Centers for the manufacture of linen. 

6. Why flax in U. S. is almost entirely raised for its 
seed. 

7. What kinds of hair will felt and why? 

8. Fur-bearing animals. 

9. Locate those animals named in No. 8. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 85 

10. Where in England and in France is produced the 
finest wool fabrics? 

Review of Structural Materials. 

1. Five most important building materials. The most 
expensive. The most lasting. The most widely distributed. 

2. How does the use of ingenious and powerful ma- 
chines affect building? 

3. How does cheap transportation come to affect the 
price of building material? 

4. Important uses of white pine, yellow pine, white 
oak, spruce, black walnut, hickory, elm, red cedar. 

5. Of the materials named in No. 1, which is most used 
among primitive peoples? Which requires most ingenuity 
and co-operation for its preparation for use as building 
material? 

6. List the important materials used in a common 
frame house. 

7. Indicate where the different articles named in No. 
6 might have been economically bought. 

8. List of the kinds of stone shown in the cemetery. 

■ 9. Where each kind might have been economically 
bought. 

10. List the materials that enter into the construction 
of your desk and suggest where each may probably have 
originally come from. 

Review of Fuels. 

1. What section of U. S. would feel a shortage of soft 
coal most? Why? What sections would feel most a 
shortage of wood? Why? 



86 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

2. Name ten articles in daily use whose manufacture 
depends on coal. 

3. Show connection between the production of coke 
and the building of steel frame buildings. 

4. Show the connection of fuel and the lighting of 
cities. 

5. In the ordinary events of one day, what products 
of petroleum do you use? 

6. What important nations are in danger of exhausting 
their fuel supply? 

7. Norway buys some pine lumber in Canada. 'WTiy? 

8. Conditions necessar}^ for large forest growth. 

9. Connection between the growth of certain trees 
and the material and the price of the book you read. 

10. Is coal more or less used in manufacturing than 
formerly? Why? 

51. Poultry. 

In what parts of the world most raised? Compare the 
number of eggs produced in the United States, with the 
number produced in Russia. AVhat nations export eggs? 
In what way are they shipped? Are refrigerators neces- 
sary? What nation most careful in the quality of the 
product? Consider their uses in the form of food. The 
use of the yolk in dressing certain kinds of leather, and of 
the whites in calico printing. Number of eggs produced 
annually in the United States. Total value of this product. 
Compare this value with the value of the gold mined in 
the United States. With the wool product. With the 
value of other great products. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 87 

52. Fish. 

Ocean fishing regions of the world. Number of vessels 
used in this business by the United States. By the United 
Kingdom. Three important kinds caught along the ''Banks. ' ' 
Four kinds found in large quantities in the North Sea. 
Oyster fisheries in the Chesapeake Bay and artificial beds 
in Long Island Sound, and also off the south eastern 
coast of Long Island. Salmon fishing and canning of the 
Columbia River. Method of preparing fish not canned 
for the market. Why must fishermen have the use of 
some land along the coast to carry on their business? Lake 
fishing of the L^nited States. What regions and value? 
River fishing regions of the United States. Value of the 
catch. Methods used in catching salmon. In catching 
oysters. In what manner are artificial oyster beds prepared ? 
Why? In what way are refrigerator cars or refrigerators 
in boats connected with this industry? 

Seal fishing of the Behring Sea. Methods used in arti- 
ficial propagation of lake fish. Of river fish. Compare 
value of the fish caught in the United States with the fish 
caught by other nations. What nations compete in catch- 
ing fish? What fish does the United States import and 
from where? With what other industry is this intimately 
connected? 

Nuts. 53. Domestic. 54. Foreign. 

The most important native varities are, walnut, hickory - 
nut, pecan, butternut, hazel-nut, chestnut and peanut. 
Foreign varieties, almond, brazil nut, English walnut, 
cocoanut. Give some special study to the last named, 



88 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

learning what may be produced from its fiber, the use of 
oil for butter and the use of the shell and of the milk. 
Countries where each of the last named group is found. 
Cities from wiiich each variety may be shipped and to 
what cities in the United States. 

55. Wood Pulp. 

Nearly all kinds of vegetable fiber can be reduced to a 
pulp from which paper can be made. The finest is made 
from linen rags. A very good grade is made from cotton 
or a mixture of the tw^o. Strawboard — for boxes — is made 
largely from wdieat straw. Samples of different papers, 
coarse and fine, can easily be had, also sam^ples of straw- 
board. Two methods are in use for making wood-pulp; one 
is by grinding blocks of wood on mill stones and then 
using the product, and the other by dissolving the pieces 
of wood chemically. The latter is the more economical 
and is coming into more general use. 

The imier bark of the basswood w^as found, some time 
since, to be good paper making material, and this led to 
experiments with the wood of the same tree and then of 
other trees not valuable as timber, until now over a million 
tons of wood-pulp are made annually in the U. S, Spruce 
fiber is said to make the best pulp, one cord of wood making 
a ton of pulp, but hemlock, basswood, poplar and other 
cheap woods are also used. 

Since transporting logs is expensive, the pulp mills will 
be located as near the forests as good power can be found; 
and also with proper regard for a large market for paper. 
The power almost universally chosen is vvater power, since 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 89 

streams are nearly always plentiful near forest regions 
and also because large quantities of water are needed in 
the process of paper making, aside from that used for power. 
The largest publishing centers of the United States are 
New York, Boston, Philadelphia and Chicago, and the 
largest paper mills are at Holyoke, Mas3., Ticonderoga, 
N. Y., Bellows, Falls Vt., Kaukauna, Wis., and some points 
on the Pacific coast. Each of the above should be located 
and the source of the power used learned. 

Find or make picture of parts of the inside of a paper 
mill and try to learn only the important parts of the process 
of making paper. Do not try to go into details. A great 
part of the paper made is put up in the form of large rolls 
for shipment. 

Represent, in some graphic way, the quantity of paper 
used annually in some publishing center, as New York or 
Chicago. As, for example, the number of carloads and the 
length of the line of cars required for such a supply. Two 
strips of paper as wide as th(^ largest daily papers, reaching 
from New York entirely across the United States, would 
not be enough for one day's supply for the newspapers of 
New York City alone and, that the presses should not run 
out of stock, these strips of paper would need to come to 
the city more rapidly than an express train moves. 

In considering the uses of paper we must not stop with 
writing paper, book paper and that for newspapers but 
consider all forms of building paper, wall paper, and that 
used in the making of flower pots, tubs, pails, canoes, horse 
shoes and car wheels; also remember that all vessels that 



90 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 

are to come into contact with water must be treated with 
paraffine. 

It will certainly be both interesting and profitable to 
trace the connection of this industry with that of lumber 
generally, with the manufacture of spruce butter tubs, with 
wooden ware mills in the making of pails and tubs, with 
the shipping of eggs, strawboard being used to make the 
''fillers'^ in which the eggs are placed inside the shipping 
boxes, with the building trades, furnishing heavy paper 
for flat roofs and, also, that to be placed between the inside 
and outside boarding of houses, to say nothing of the large 
amount required in making all forms of paper boxes. 

The expense of all the early forms of paper was very 
considerable, and only for the discovery of a process by 
which to make it much cheaper the invention of printing 
would have been of little real service to the world. It is a 
matter of some interest that during the Civil War in the 
United States, linen or cotton rags could not be had in 
sufficient quantities to enable the paper mills to furnish 
the supply needed by the newspapers of the country and 
it was found that various kinds of straw would make a 
paper that would do, although unsatisfactory; and this 
began a series of experiments resulting, finally, in learning 
how to make paper of nearly all kinds from wood pulp. 

Suggested Outline for the Study of Commercial Paper. 

1. How business would be done in a small city without any aid 
from banks. 

2. Ways in which business men get money from banks to run their 
business. 

3. Distinguish between banks of deposit and banks of issue. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 91 

4. Banks that are national. 

5. The three classes of banks most common in U. S. 

6. The way the ordinary' business man pays his bills. 

7. Checks. Drafts. BiUs of Exchange. 

8. Reason for using commercial paper instead of money in most 
business transactions. 

9. Amount of business done in representative city banks. (Sec 
their sworn statements in the daily papers.) 

10. How a man living in some smalltown, as Dixon, Ills., would be 
likely to pay a debt he owed to another man in his own town, to a man 
in Chicago, to a man in Boston, to a man in London. 

56. Commercial Paper. 

In an earlier part of this book it has been shown that 
money is a business necessity and that a system of banking 
is not only a convenience but a necessity to an extended 
business. 

This discussion is to further show that banks are an abso- 
lute business necessity and also that without a well defined 
system of commercial paper, or some equivalent, which 
would not be possible without a well organized system of 
banking, the present volmne of business would be impos- 
sible. 

In a town of even three thousand inhabitants, entirely 
deprived of banking facilities, either at home or elsewhere, 
it would be very difficult to carry on its ordinary local 
transactions. Every business man must provide for the 
safekeeping of all moneys coming in or required to conduct 
his business, he must himself take or send by mail, or 
express, the money for the payment of all bills, he must 
receive all payments in ''hard" money, for bills are the 
creation of banks, in case of failure of money to come in 



92 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

as he had a right to expect, or if an unusual demand for 
money should find him unprepared to meet it, as so 
many times is the case, we v\'Ould have to supply his need 
from private source or see himself financially wrecked. 
Not one-tenth of the concerns now doing business, even in 
a very conservative way, could continue for five years 
without the aid of banks. 

Nearly all banks invite the general public to deposit 
money with them for safekeeping; some, in addition to 
this, under the»restrictions of law, issue a certain amount 
of bills payable on demand in gold or silver, or the equiva- 
lent at the bank of issue. The latter are sometimes called 
banks of issue. Some banks are truly national and control 
all the moneys of the government by which they are 
established. Such is the Bank of England in London, 
the Bank of France in Paris; in a modified way this is true 
of the Bank of Scotland. In the United States are private 
banks, state banks and national banks. All are subject 
to certain laws for inspection but none in any way represent 
the government. 

The money deposited in any bank may be as a special 
deposit or on general account. In the former case, the 
one who made the deposit can draw it at any time, it being 
placed in the bank as a mere matter of safety, and, usually, 
for but a short time; in the latter case, the deposit is not 
only made for safety but that the depositor may draw 
orders on the bank for such sums and at such times as his 
business requires, up to the amoimt of his deposit. These 
orders of a customer on the bank are called checks, or 
cheques. It is very common for business men to deposit 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 93 

all money or checks received each day with the bank and 
to pay most of his local bills by checks on his local bank, 
but to pay bills at a distance by getting from his bank its 
order on some other bank near the place where his creditor 
lives and sending this order, called a draft, to the person 
that is to be paid. The business man pays for this draft 
by giving his check on the local bank where he does his 
business for the amount of the draft and about fifteen 
cents added to pay for the trouble of drawing the draft. 
Many banks do not charge their customers anything for 
this trouble. If the creditor lives in a foreign country, as 
England, for instance, the bank can procure for their 
customer the order of some bank of United States on some 
convenient bank in England for the proper amount and 
then he can mail this bill of exchange to the man he wishes 
to pay in England. For this bill of exchange he pays his 
bank by check. Even manufacturing concerns often pay 
their workmen by checks. Thus it is seen that the ordinary 
man of business uses very little actual money. The dif- 
ferent forms of commercial paper are both cheaper and 
safer. Banks have occasion to send money to other banks 
and get money from other banks as they may need, while 
over nine-tenths of all the business transactions of the 
world do not use any actual money; yet all this is made 
possible only because the real cash is known to be in the 
bank vaults v/here it can be had if needed. It certainly 
must be clear that a well considered method of banking 
without which the system of commercial paper, as now 
exists, would be impossible, is a necessity of modern business. 



94 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

That children comprehend and are deeply interested in 
this, repeated trial has proven. 

57. The Coarser Fibers. 

The coarser fibers used in rough fabrics, and in the pro- 
duction of rope and baskets largely are, hemp, jute, sisal, 
ramie, and raphia. Have samples or pictures representing 
each plant and determine the most common use of each 
kind of fiber. Regions where each is produced. 

58. Caoutchouc. 

What it is. Where found. How obtained. Character 
of the tree. Color of the raw product with reason for same. 
Form in which it is imported into the United States, and 
from what cities imported. Value of the raw material 
imported. Important uses. Cities of the United States 
engaged in the manufacture of rubber goods. Value of 
the world's annual crop of caoutchouc. Forty per cent 
of this is consumed in the United States. Nations next 
to the United States in the manufacture of rubber goods. 
The manufacture of rubber goods connected with what 
other industry and how? Rapidity of increase in the use 
of rubber goods. History of the invention of vulcanized 
rubber. For which see Biography of Charles Goodyear. 

59. Gutta-Percha. 

What it is. Compare this with rubber. Where obtained. 
Uses. Notying especially its use in the construction of 
ocean cables. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 95 

60. Ll'^ATHER. 

Leather is produced by tanning the skins of various 
animals, especially of cattle, sheep, goats, horses and hogs. 
These skins are tanned either by the use of certain barks 
or by a chemical process. Kinds of bark. What will 
determine the location of tanneries using the former 
process? The location of tanneries using the latter? AVhat 
are the tanning centers of the United States? The process 
of tanning common leather. ^ Important uses of leather. 
The greatest leather market of the United States and why? 
Is this likely to change? From what countries does the 
United States import hides? 

The process of boot and shoe making in the factories. 
Compare with the production of boots and shoes by hand 
labor. Compare the expense of producing boots and shoes 
in the United States with that of England, Germany. 
Cause of the difference. Do we import boots and shoes? 
Other leather goods? From what nations? What kinds 
of leather goods? To what nations do we export boots and 
shoes? Value of the annual product of boots and shoes 
in the United States. With what other industry is the 
leather industry connected and how? 

Fifth Review. 
(Topics 46 to 60, Inclusive.) 

1. What countr}^ raises hens quite largely? Ducks? 
Geese? Value of eggs laid annually in U. S. Compare 
with the value of sugar consumed. Length of railroad 
it would build at $10,000 per mile. 



96 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

2. How does the poultry product compare in value 
with the fish catch of U. S.? If all U. S. fishing should 
fail for a year what cities would feel it most? 

3. If no one had 3'et invented a method of making 
paper from wood pulp, what very practical difference 
would we all realize in our homes? 

4. How does the annual output of all the paper mills 
in U. S. compare with output of hard coal, of gold? - Show 
why a large paper mill should be built at Ticonderoga, 

N. Y. 

5. What are the important fibers used to make rope? 
What becomes of old rope? What fiber is used to make 
gunny sacking? 

6. What is the most important use of gutta percha? 
TMiere is it found? Give the termini of one Atlantic 
cable. One Pacific cable. 

7. Explain how it can be that U. S. buys hides of 
Argentina and after bringing them to Xew England, tan- 
ning them, and making the leather into shoes it is able 
to sell the shoes in the city that furnished the hides. 

8. Locate the shoe manufacturing cities of U. S. 

9. TMiere are the great seal fishing regions of the world ? 
For what purpose are seals caught? 

10. Why do business men use checks instead of money? 
Why could they not get along without money altogether? 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 07 

Locative Geography. 
(Topics 46 to 60, Inclusive.) 

1. Great cities connected with the meat industry of 
U. S. 

2. Cities of U. S. that grind large quantities of wheat. 
Cities of the w^orld that ship wheat. 

3. Two cities that ship raw rubber. Two cities of 
U. S. that manufacture rubber goods. A city from which 
gutta percha could be had. 

4. Cities of U. S. that export raw cotton. Three cities 
of New England that manufacture cotton goods. 

5. Three cotton manufacturing cities of each of the 
following nations: England, France, Germany, Russia. 

6. Cities that ship silk cocoons. Cities of the world 
that manufacture silk goods. 

7. To the nations named in No. 5 add U. S. and name 
the cities engaged in the manufacture of wool goods. 

8. Five cities of U. S. manufacturing paper. 

9. Five cities of U. S. from which fish is shipped in 
large quantities. 

10. The city producing the largest amount of fine 
leather goods. A city from which U. S. imports a large 
numb&r of hides. The shoe manufacturing cities of U. S. 

61. Tile. 

Use and value of drain tile. Use of terra cotta. Of fire 
brick. (For uses of fine clay see pottery.) 



98 MAXUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

62. Copper. 

Copper is an ore found mixed with rock in ]\Iontana, and 
Michigan, and as an oxide in Arizona. Method of prepara- 
tion for market. Important uses. Cities connected with 
the mining of copper in the United States. Cities connected 
with the refuiing of copper in the United States. One 
other nation besides the United States producmg copper 
largely. World's production of copper about four hundred 
eighty thousand tons, of which the United States produces 
sixty per cent. Value of copper exported by the United 
States, sixty million dollars. About two-thirds of which 
is refined copper. United States imports about fifteen 
million dollars worth of ore. AMiy? Of what is brass 
and bronze each made and to what important uses put? 

63. Zinc. 

Mining regions of the United States. In the treatment 
of the ore, the most important process is that of roasting, 
by which the impurities are driven off; the most important 
of these is sulphur, which is collected and manufactured 
into sulphuric acid, used in a large number of other manu- 
factories. Zinc is also used in the manufacture of a kind 
of paint, in the manufacture of galvanic batteries, and to 
galvanize iron. Will the refuiing work be at the zinc mines? 
If not, what will determine their location? \a\ue of the 
annual product in the United States. Cities of the United 
States connected with the mining or the refining of zinc. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 99 

64. Lead. 

Important mining regions of the world. Production 
about eight hundred thousand tons annually, one-fourth 
being from the United States. About same amoimt mined 
in Spain. Important uses. Production of paint of which 
the United States produces annually about ten million 
dollars worth. Water pipes and tanks, mixed in proper 
proportion with tin to produce pewter, and solder. Mixed 
with antimony to produce type metal. With arsenic to 
produce shot and bullets. With what other industry is 
lead production connected? How? 

65. Plumbago. 

Where found? Compare with lead. Method of pre- 
paration for use. Note three uses: For lead pencils, for 
stove blacking, and as a lubricant for machinery. How 
produced in the United States? 

66. Tin. 

Tin mines of the world. How is tin mined and prepared 
for the market? Most noted tin mine of the world. 
Regions producmg the largest amount of tin. In what 
cities of the United States are tin plate mills? What is 
tin plate? Most important use of tin. The United States 
imports about twenty million dollars worth of tin bars. 
Will this change? How? WTiat nations compete in the 
production of tin? 
LofC. 



100 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

67. Nickel. 

Nickel mines. Uses of nickel : German silver for coins, 
nickel steel for armor-plate, and for shafts and other parts 
of machinery requiring unusual strength. 

68. Aluminum. 

This metal up to a few years since was as valuable as 
gold, but quite recently methods have been discovered 
by which it may be obtained in large quantities at small 
expense from clay, and may now be bought at thirty cents 
per pound. It is one of the best conductors of electricity, 
and is one of the lightest of metals. How^ may this affect 
the copper industry? Aluminum bronze. 

96. Tobacco. 

Tobacco: regions where produced. Character of climate 
required. What peculiarity of climate required for the 
production of the best leaf for wrapping cigars? Method 
of planting, cultivating and harvestmg. How stored. 
In what form shipped. From what cities of the United 
States exported. To what cities. From what cities does 
the United States import? Why the United States both 
exports and imports tobacco. Value of the United States' 
crop. Of the world's crop. Whsit nations compete in the 
production of tobacco. Uses for the coarse parts of the 
leaf. Method of preparing ''plug" tobacco, snuff, and 
cigarettes. Consumption per capita in Holland, United 
States and Turkey. Amount of revenue derived from 
tobacco tax in the United States. Effect of tobacco on 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 101 

the nervous system. On the action of the heart. Use of 
cigarettes. Regulations of large business concerns in regard 
to the use of cigarettes. 

70. Opium. 

What it is. Have drawings or pictures to illustrate. 
Regions engaged in its production. How prepared for 
the market and in what form shipped. Use in medicines. 
City furnishing this largely to the United States. For 
smoking purposes largely furnished by what nation. A 
government monoply in India. What is the purpose of 
this? Cities connected with opium trade. Way in which 
this trade was forced into China. Its influence in China. 
Value of the annual opium production. Effect of using 
opium upon the system. 

Sixth Review. 
(Topics 61 to 70, Inclusive.) 

1. How is drain tile laid and w^hat does it do for the 
land? Would glazed tile answer the same purpose? Is 
the proper kind of clay for tile found in few or many places? 

2. Any reason why brick or tile will be used near the 
place of manufacture? What? Hollow brick and their 
use. How is the use of hollow brick connected with the 
use of steel in the erection of fire proof buildings and high 
buildings? 

3. Why should copper mined in Spain be shipped 
elsewhere to be refined? Three regions of U. S., naming 
a city in each, producing rich, copper ore. Is the use of 
copper likely to increase? Reason? 



102 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

4. Uses of brass and bronze. Difference in composi- 
tion. 

5. If storage batteries should be used to run street 
cars and the trollej^ system abandoned, how would that 
affect the demand for copper and for zinc? 

6. What mipurity is found in large quantities in most 
zinc ore? How is it utilized? TMiere may we find large 
supplies of nearly pure sulphur? 

7. How is lead connected with the pamting of a frame 
house? How connected with the flax mdustry? How is 
the lead in your pencil related to the blacking on the stove? 
From what places in the U. S. might the material for both 
uses have come? 

8. \Miat is the greatest use of tin? What can you 
learn about tin mines of Cornwall? 

9. From what is aluminum obtained? Its price now 
compared with its price a few years ago. Why the change? 
If it becomes cheap enough, vrhich one of the metals above 
named may it in part displace? 

10. Tobacco producing states. Foreign countries* 
Name four nations using large amomits of tobacco. Per 
capita used in each. Value of the crop in U. S. compared 
with wheat, with wool. 

Locative Geography. 

(Topics 61 to 70, Inclusive.) 

1. Three cities of the world connected with the pro- 
duction of tin. Two cities of U. S. that manufacture 
tinplate. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 103 

2. Cities of the world that refine copper. 

3. Three places that mine nickel. 

4. Cities of U. S. smelting zinc. 

5. Cities of U. S. smelting lead. 

6. Cities of U. S. in which would be found large tobacco 
warehouses. 

7. Three foreign cities from which we import tobacco. 

8. Cities of U. S. in which tobacco is largely manufac- 
tured. 

9. Three foreign cities from which opium would be 
largely exported. 

10. Compare above cities as to size, as to climate and 
as to industries. 

Seventh Grade. 

The work of the year covers topics 71 to 110, inclusive. 
No especial reviews or drills are put down in the work of 
this 5^ear, first, because the teacher certainly will use such 
as she sees are helpful, but, more especially, because the 
entire effort for the year's study is to present all that has 
been previously studied from a different point of view, 
believing that thus the teacher may successfully use the in- 
creased knowledge and greater maturity of the children for 
the purpose of leaving the subject in something like a syste- 
matic and organized form in the learner's mind. 

Outline of Local Government. 

1. Source of power. 

2.. Expressed through caucus and then at election. 
3. In a country town (not village) the chief officer 
and his duties. 



104 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY^ 

4. Officers that levy town taxes, and make proper 
record of the same. 

5. Duties of Assessor. Duties of Collector. 

6. Commissioners of Highways. 

7. Justices of the Peace and Constables. 

8. Of a small citj^ Mayor. Police Department. 
Health Department. 

9- Courts and attorney. 
10. Law making department. City Council. 

Study of a Large City. 

The study of a great city, as Chicago, with an estimated 
population of two millions. 

The number of people upon a given area, as of one acre, 
is a matter of a good deal of interest and becomes very 
real to one who compares such a population to that which 
would be found on equal area in a rural region or in a village. 
The density of population provokes serious and interested 
inquiry as to why people should be willing to place them- 
selves in such situations, how they can be housed, fed, and 
by what means they can gain even the necessities of life. 
Even children are interested to understand what industrial 
or social forces can bring them together, or by any possi- 
bility, properly care for them. With this in mind, the 
study of a city becomes very real and profitable. 

It would be impossible to consider all the varieties of 
building used to house the people of a city, but a few of 
the representative kinds may be studied with great advan- 
tage. The cheap shanty of the squatter on railroad land 
we have all seen many times and can easily describe both 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 105 

the building and its surroundings; with a httle more effort 
one may be able to see the poverty of the inside furnishings, 
the sanitary conditions, the kind of real life that exists 
and wonder what the intellectual and moral influence of 
such surrounding will be upon children who know nothing 
better. Another representative form is the tenement 
house, found in the more densly populated parts of the 
city, where, not infrequently, more than five hundred 
people are housed in one building, and that building fronting 
upon an alley, a family of six people sometimes living in one 
small room, where, not even the decencies of life can be 
respected. The city flat, occupied by a class of people 
having a better and more assured income, may be taken 
as the representative home of the great middle class of 
artisans and workmen, and its method of heating, lighting 
and sanitation should be compared with the methods 
already familiar, used in the country and in villages. Next 
consider the great apartment house, occupied by the rich, 
and supplied with all the conveniences and luxuries that can 
be furnished by the highest ingenuity and greatest wealth of 
the present day. Magazine articles appear, not infrequently, 
on this theme and will be read with great interest by the 
children. Aside from these, there should be noticed the fine 
residences on the best streets of the city and the contrast of 
life between these and some of the forms first mentioned 
should be intelligently and sympathetically studied. 

The feeding of a great city should bring into imaginary, 
or real, view the miles of truck gardeners that enter the 
city before daylight with the products of their gardens, 
and form familiar groups in certain parts of the city during 



106 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

the greater part of the forenoon of each work day. The 
markets that supply the fresh meat, fruits, both local and 
tropical, the acres of platforms each morning filled with 
milk cans to supply the milk and cream should be brought 
into our view in considering this theme. In order that 
children may realize, to any extent, the quantities of any 
one of the classes of food mentioned, special calculations, 
should be made by them; as, for example, the number of 
loads of fresh meat of two tons each that would be required 
for the estimated population, and see these wagons, in 
imagination, in line on one street and learn how long a 
line of wagons would be required for one day's supply; or, 
suppose each person to require one-half pint of milk daily, 
how many eight gallon cans would supply them, how many 
cars these cans would load, how many tram loads these 
cars would form. In thinking of fruits, the children should 
learn something of the number of special train loads or 
boat loads it would require for a week's supply, the special 
forms of car or other conveyance that had to be invented 
before fruits from a distance could be placed where they 
could be cheaply accessible. The butter supply for a month 
or for a year, the cheese supply for the same time can be 
easily estimated in some graphic way, the work done in 
the bakery, by the confectioner shops, in the restaurants, 
and the way in which the broken food is distributed to the 
poor from many restaurants and hotels late at night should 
be considered. 

Most great cities obtain their water supply from sources 
at a distance of several miles, the water being conveyed 
to the cities through great conduits, constructed of masonry, 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 107 

from which it either flows into or is pumped into reservoirs 
or stand-pipes from which water pipes of various sizes 
convey it through the city. In Chicago, the large source 
of supply is from the lake, the place from which the supply 
is drawn, in each case, is called a Crib. The first one built 
is about a mile from the mouth of the Chicago River and 
the way in which the work was done in constructing the 
tunnel should not be left unnoticed. Work w^as commenced 
at each end at the same time. A dam was built at the 
Crib to exclude the water so as to permit a shaft to be sunk, 
to the depth desired, when the horizontal excavation 
began, directed by the engineer, so that the two gangs 
of workmen should exactly meet. It is a matter of a 
good deal of interest that when the meeting occurred the vari- 
ation between the two gangs of workmen amounted to but 
very few inches. The second Crib is built about three miles 
out from the shore line, its method of construction being 
similiar to that of the first. The children should ascertain 
why the second Crib, at large additional expense, was 
built so far out into the lake and what effect the opening 
of the Drainage Canal has upon the water supply of the 
city. Some idea of the power required at the pumping 
stations will prove useful and, also, it should be known that, 
in case of a great fire, or other unusual demand for water, 
the force of all the pumps used may be turned directly 
upon the water pipes of the city thus forcing a stream from 
a hose much higher and much more swiftly than can be 
done by pressure from the reservoir. The use of this with 
very high buildings should not be omitted. 
Until recent years the best lighting afforded for cities 



108 MAXUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

was that from gas, manufactured by the city; this is now 
greatly aided by electric lighting, still the construction of 
gas works is a matter of a good deal of importance and 
interest. If the work cannot be ^'isited, pictures can be 
easily obtained by which to gam an idea of the way in 
which gas is forced from the coal in the coke ovens and 
stored, under considerable pressm^e. in large tanks from 
which it is piped to all parts of the city, while the coke that 
remains is used as fuel. The contrast between lighting 
cities as is now clone and that used a himdred years ago 
when each householder was requh^ed to hang a tin lantern 
in front of his premises, is so marked that it will not fail 
to interest. The effect of better lighting of cities upon 
the commission of crime might also be noted. 

The fact that so large a niunber of people can support 
themselves in so small a place is good e^ddence of the 
existence of great industries, a few of the greatest of which 
should be considered. The packing interest of Chicago 
requires for its business about one square mile of land 
and employs nearly fifty thousand people and probably 
supports three or foiu* times that mmiber. The method 
of construction of the vards, the facihties for imloading, 
slaughtering and caring for about one himdred fifty thousand 
animals in ten hours certainly is worthy of stud}'. To 
this we should add the raih'oad depots, railroad yards 
and terminal facilities, the Imnbering interest, the grain 
elevators, the department stores, the wholesale grocers, 
the teaming, and, as a foimdation for all, the system of 
banks upon which all this business activity must finally 
rest. A contrast, rather startling, between the financial 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 109 

situation now and a little over a hundred years ago is 
shown by the fact that one Chicago bank, alone, has on 
deposit, for its customers, a daily balance that would more 
than have paid the debt of the revolutionary war that 
threatened to overthrow the nation in the days of Alex- 
ander Hamilton. 

Some attention should be given to the study of street 
and boulevard construction, street car lines, both surface 
and elevated, its harbor facilities, lighthouses, buoys and 
long line of river dockage. 

Nearly all the business interests of a great city are now 
controlled by men who occupy its down town offices. One 
such office building has a population sufficient to make a 
small city and controls a line of business that would occupy 
a large one. The Monadnock or the Stock Exchange 
Building might be taken as a representative of this class. 

But a great city is not all above ground. Some of the 
greatest necessities and utilities are its miles of sewers, its 
watermains, its pneumatic tubes, its gas pipes, its tunnels 
for quick passenger transportation and for telephone wires. 

The theaters, concert halls, museums, art galleries, 
lecture halls, gymnasiums, bowling alleys are some of the 
places where the people of a city find amusement and 
recreation. Its great park system, connected by boule- 
vards, should also be remembered and some of its special 
social functions might well be compared with the simple 
society affairs in a country or village. 

Its method of government should be seriously studied 
and its departments and officials compared with those 
of the state or the local municipality. It has its executive 



110 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

department, at the head of which is a Mayor, having the 
power to appoint and largely control a police department, 
a fire department, a department of health, a street depart- 
ment and inspector of buildings; its legislative department 
is especially represented by a board of aldermen over whose 
ofRcial acts the Mayor has a veto power; the judicial 
department is represented by its justices of the peace and 
higher courts with proper executive ofhcers and a jail; its 
financial department consist sof assessors, collectors, and 
treasurer, while the board of education, appointed by the 
Mayor, has charge of its public schools. The system by 
which a city cares for its garbage is one of interest and one 
also on which information is quite readily obtainable. 

Suggested Outline for the Study of Physical Geography. 

1. Locate the great mountain systems in each of the grand divisions 
of the earth. 

2. Locate for Januarj"^ the Northeast trade winds, the Southeast 
trade winds, the three great belts of calms, the two belts of Westerly 
winds, the Arctic and Antarctic winds. 

3. Locate each of the following ocean currents for December; At- 
lantic Equatorial, Gulf Stream, Brazil Current, Pacific Equatorial, 
Japan Current, Labrador Current, Siberian Current, Chilian Current. 

4. Locate the same for July. 

5. Draw the winter isotherm of 60° in the Northern^ hemisphere and 
account for all the great bends in it. 

6. Draw^ the summer isotherm of 60° in the Northern Hemi- 
sphere and account for the great bends in it. Note where these lines 
are nearest and where farthest apart. Give reason. 

7. Find the isotherm of 80° in the Pacific Ocean. 

8. Account for the heavy rainfall of the Amazon and Congo valleys. 

9. Account for the following desert regions: Sahara, Persia, Gobi, 
Interior of Australia, Utah. 

10. Source of rainfall in Mississippi valley. On Atlantic slope. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 111 

11. Cause for difforenco (,!' climate of Southern and Northern Cal- 
ifornia. 

12. Note the latitude of Montreal and of Venice and account for the 
difference of climate. 

13. Suppose the Rocky Mountain sj-.-^tem obliterated, how would it 
affect the climate of North America? Would it help V. S. if a mountain 
range extended along its Northern boundary? 

14. Suppose the main mountain chain of Europe extended north 
and south through France and Great Britain. Change of climate it 
would cause, 

15. Suppose the Alps extended north from the Adriatic Sea to the 
Baltic. What changes in climate of Europe east of that line? West 
of that hne? 

16. The wheat crop of Russia sometimes fails for lack of rain. Ac- 
count for this. 

17. Account for the frequent failure of the India wheat crop. 

18. Why is the Orinoco valley arid during a part of the year and 
drenched with rain at other times? 

19. Where do most of the great commercial rivers of Europe rise? 
Account for this. 

20. Why has Spain less rainfall than France? 

21. Why do steamers going from Nev/ York to Liverpool run far- 
ther north than on their return trip? 

22. How is a vast amount of the vapor and heat of the equatorial 
regions transported to the temperate regions? Good of this? 

23. Effect of large lakes and inland seas upon climate? Which 
shore of Lake Michigan is most affected? Of Black Sea? Of Medi- 
terranean? Gulf of Mexico? 

24. How do rivers determine the location of cities? 

25. Select a river that has a delta at its mouth and another that 
has an estuarj^ Compare them as to their commercial value. 

26. If a wind current is moving toward a place of higher tempera- 
ture will it deposit its moisture? If the reverse, what? 

27. Apply the knowledge gained in No. 6 in at least five differeiit 
regions of the world. 

28. Explain the formation of rain, hail, .snow, dew, frost. 

29. Annual rainfall in Missis.sippi valley, in Mexico, in Northern 
India, in England, in Po valley. 

30. Explain land and sea breezes. 



112 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 



73. Physical Geogeaphy. 

By means of relief maps, study the profile of the coimtr}', 
mountains, plains and river valleys and the general slope. 
Winds, — locate, on the map, trade winds, equatorial calms, 
calms of tropics, region of prevailing westerly winds. 

Ocean currents, — locate, especially, the Gulf Stream, the 
Japan CmTent, Equatorial CmTents, Arctic and Antarctic 
cmTents. Effect of all high lands upon the prevailing 
winds as to direction, moisture and temperature. 

From each of the ocean currents above named, trace the 
effects produced b}^ the prevailing winds. After noting 
the effects of high lands upon moisture distribution, deter- 
mine what changes would be produced if, for example, the 
Rocky mountain system ran east and west across Xorth 
America, if the Scandinavian mountain system was obliter- 
ated, if the general trend of the Alps was from north to 
south across Em*ope, if the great Asiatic moimtain system 
ran from Southern India north across Asia. Xote the 
cause for the miproductive condition of the Great Basin 
of North America, the source of rainfall m Western Europe 
north of the Alps, south of the Alps. Learn the source 
of the rainfall of the Mississippi valley, the Atlantic slope, 
the Amazon valley. Children will easily amve at correct 
answers in the above cases by an intelligent study of land 
elevations, wind and ocean currents. It is entirely tiseless 
to learn of location and strength of physical causes without 
attacliing to them their industrial and economic results. 
With this thought in mind, stud}' each of the great pro- 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 113 

ductive valleys of the world and also the desert regions 
of the world. 

Note that the location of the great salt water fish supply 
of the world is in the cold ocean currents. Use of ocean 
currents in commerce, of wind currents in com.merce. Call 
attention to this when tracing the shipment of any product 
to its market, and see how this would affect the direction 
taken by a vessel or the time required. 

Ysist evaporation in the tropical regions cools those 
regions by the amount of latent heat taken up and con- 
cealed in its vapor. This heat and moisture are transported 
towards either pole, where both are set free. Effect of 
this upon both the tropical and the temperate regions. 
Water surfaces are heated and cooled more slowly than 
land surfaces, hence the sea breezes, also the high tempera- 
ture of land-locked seas such as the Mediterranean and 
Caribbean. Select land surfaces and water surfaces that 
illustrate the greater extremes of heat and cold felt on 
the former than on the latter: 

Lakes, — their service in commerce, in fish production, 
as sources of moisture and as furnishing a modification 
of temperature. By study of prevailing winds over such 
bodies of water, determine which shore of a lake will be 
most effected in climate. 

Rivers, — uses: Erosion, transportation of the results 
of erosion to valleys, and in lumbering, commerce on lower 
course, use and location of falls. Why cities frequently 
grow up at the mouth and at a fall in a river. 

Atmosphere, — uses: To support animal life, to support 
combustion, to support and transport vapor, to prevent 



114 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY . 

too rapid -radiation of heat from the earth, to produce 
twiUght, to diffuse hght. Method by which the sun heats 
the atmosphere, conditions of the atmosphere that increase 
or decrease radiation. Dew, frost. Practical results. Effect 
of elevation on tei^perature. Reason for this. Rain, 
hail, snow. Brief study of the races of men. 

Study of World Belts. 
Belt of 10° N. to 10° S. Around the World. 

1. On outline map of the world trace the boundary 
lines of this belt. Name important countries of South 
America, of Africa, of East India Islands. Fill places 
on map as needed. 

2. Prevailing winds in America, in Africa, in East 
Indies. Account for these winds. Which of the three 
sections has the most desirable climate? W^hy? 

3. Compare, as to products and inhabitants and com- 
mercial use, the Amazon Valley and the Kongo Valley. 

4. North and south of the forest regions found in 
answering No. 3 are treeless plains. Locate them, learn 
their names and the reason for such plains. 

5. Why is the climate of the islands in this belt so 
different from that of America and Africa in the same belt? 

6. What are the important products of the islands 
in this belt? Three cities. 

7. Account for great differences in the climate of the 
eastern and western coast of South America in this belt. 
Name two cities on or near each coast. 

8. What commercial products found on the Kongo 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 115 

Uiver? AVhat promise does this valley give for future 
development? Locate a city on each coast of Africa. 

9. How is the Nile River dependent on what happens 
in this belt? 

10. Are the large islands of the East Indies moun- 
tainous or level? What difference would this m^ake? 

Belt 10° N. to 30° N. Around the World. 

1. On outline map of the world, trace the boundary 
lines of this belt. Name important countries included in 
America, in Africa, in Asia. Fill in all places called for 
below when needed. 

2. Prevailing wind in America, in Africa, in Western 
Asia (summer winds and winter winds separately), Eastern 
Asia (summer and winter separately). Account for these 
winds. 

3. Note the location of the high lands in relation to 
the prevailing winds and then tell about the rainfall in the 
different sections of this belt. (Three greatest desert 
regions and three regions of heavy rainfall). 

4. Locate cities of two hundred thousand or more; in 
America two, in Africa none, in Western Asia none, in 
British India eight. East of India five. Reason for such a 
grouping of cities. 

5. Character of the people compared vnth people 
of U. S. 

6. Compare temperatature of diiTerent sections with 
that of City of Mexico or Manila. Account for contrasts. 

7. What are important industries of the different 
sections? 



116 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

8. What important nations are interested in the belt? 
Where is greatest progress now indicated? 

9. What part of this section was in the Indies sought 
by Cohimbus? Would it be thought worth the effort now? 

10. About what part of the population of the earth 
is in this belt and in what part of the belt? Is this belt 
a good one to live in? Reason. What races of men in 
this belt? 

Belt of 30° N. to 38° N. Around the World. 

1. On outline map of the world trace the boundary 
lines of this belt. Name important countries in America, 
Europe, Africa, Western Asia, Eastern Asia. Fill in places 
called for below as needed. 

2. Prevailing wind in America, in Europe, in Africa, 
in Western Asia, in summer, in winter, in Eastern Asia 
in summer, in winter. Account for these winds. 

3. Note the location of the highlands in relation to 
the prevailing winds and then account for the rainfall in 
the different sections of this belt. 

4. What seven important cities of the U. S. very near 
the north boundary line of this section? What cities about 
as large Ss St. Louis south of that line in America? 

5. Cities of two hundred thousand or more in this 
belt; in Africa two, in Europe four, Western Asia two, 
Eastern Asia nine (include Tiensin and Pekin and cities 
of Japan and Korea). 

6. Note the desert and semi-arid regions of this belt, 
locate the N. E. trade wind and then accoimt for the lack 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 117 

of rainfall in the different sections. Why the cities in 
Eastern Asia? 

7. Give the great products of this belt. In the fertile 
regions, is it easy or difficult to raise these products? Is 
this good or bad for the people? Races found in this belt? 

8. The great crops of U. S. grown in this belt. In 
what part is each produced? 

9. About what part of the area of U. S. in this belt? 
What part of the population? Account for this. 

10. Are the products you discovered in answering 
No. 8 largely manufactured in this region? Reason. Are 
the people of the section in U. S. in any way similar to the 
people in Eastern Asia? Reason for your answer. 

Belt of 38° N. to 46° N. Around the World. 

1. On outline map of the world trace the boundary 
lines of this belt. Name important cities in America, 
Europe, Asia. Fill places called for as needed. 

2. Prevailing wind in America, in Europe, in Siberia 
in winter, in summer. Account for these winds. Note, 
especially, the effect of the summer sun north of theMediter- 
ranean Sea and of the Black Sea on the small area north 
and east of it. 

3. Note the location of the highlands in relation to the 
prevailing winds and then account for the rainfall in the 
different sections of this belt. 

4. Contrast the productiveness of Northern Spain 
with France. Compare, in climate, Northern Italy with 
Southern Germany, Roumania, Southwestern Siberia, the 



118 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

southern part of the Province of Quebec, with Minnesota, 
Western Oregon. Account for all answers. 

5. Cities of two hundred thousand or more in this 
belt in America, fifteen, in Europe twelve, Asia, two. Will 
this relation change in future? 

6. Important products of this belt in America, in 
Western Europe, in Eastern Europe, in Western Siberia, in 
Eastern Siberia, in China. 

7. Compare these products in each section with the 
products in corresponding sections of the belt immediately 
south of it. Compare this belt in America with the same 
belt in Western Europe, in Eastern Europe. 

8. Compare the efficiency of the laboring classes in 
the sections named in No. 7. Reason for differences. 

9. Compare the amount of manufacturing carried on 
in the sections named in No. 7. 

10. Name cities of one million or more in this belt, in 
America, three, in Europe, one, in Asia, two. 

Belt North of 46° N. 

1. Name important countries in this belt in America, 
in Europe, (eleven) in Asia. Locate places on outline 
map of the world as needed. 

2. Prevailing winds in winter and m summer in South- 
eastern Canada, in Southwestern Canada east of the Rocky 
Mountains, in British Columbia, in Alaska. 

3. Locate the forest regions in America, in Siberia. 
Note the semi-arid region south of the forests of Siberia 
and explain why no such belt exists in America. (Great 
Lakes and Gulf of Mexico.) 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 119 

4. Why is the influence of the Atlantic Ocean not 
large on the climate of Siberia. AATiat prevents the Pacific. 
Ocean from modifying the climate of most of Canada? 
Influence of Hudson Bay on Canada. "Wliich has greater 
promise for the future, Canada or Siberia? 

5. Locate the great river valleys in this belt. Compare 
as to both area and usefulness, these rivers with those 
in the belt south of this. Reasons for your conclusions. 

6. Contrast the climate of North America in this belt 
with that of Europe. Account for differences, ^^liat 
section of North America has a climate similar to this belt 
of Em-ope south of 60° N.? 

7. Cities of two hundred thousand or more in this 
belt in America, in Asia, in Europe (about fifty), England 
12, France 2, Belgium 2, Netherlands 3, Germany 12, 
Austria-Hungary 3, Turkey 2, Denmark 1, Norway 1 
Sweden 1, Russia 6. 

8. Six of the cities named in No. 7 have one million 
or more. Which are they? What part of any of the belts 
studied is most like the European section of this belt? 

9. In the European section of this belt, excluding 
Norway, Sweden and Russia, there are about one million 
square miles and a population of two hundred million 
people. Compare with Texas, with California, with Brazil, 
with south half of China as to value commercially, educa- 
tionally, religiously. 

10. T\Tiich of the belts so far studied is most valuable 
to the world and why? 



120 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Belt 10° S. to 35° S. Around the World. 

1. On outline map of the world, trace the boundary 
lines of this belt. Name important countries of South 
America in this belt, of Africa, of Australia. Fill places 
on map as needed. 

2. Prevailing winds in northern part of this belt in 
South America, in southern part, in .Africa in July, in 
December, in Australia in July, in December. Note the 
position of the highlands in each country and say how 
this will effect rainfall. 

3. Important agricultural products of the sections 
named in No. 2. Important mineral products. Compare 
Africa and Australia in this last class of products. 

4. ^Tiat common characteristic is found in the three 
countries named that all should be used largely in raising 
both cattle and sheep? Does this recommend the fertilit}^ 
of these sections? 

5. Largest city in this belt in Africa; what has caused 
the rapid growth? Two other cities of Africa in this belt. 

6. Cities of two hundred thousand or more in South 
America, four, in Australia, two. Compare this belt as 
to cities and commerce with the belt of 10° N. to 30° N., 
with the belt of 30° N. to 38° N. 

7. Conclusions as to productiveness, as to character 
of the people of the belts compared in No. 6. 

8. AVhat of value is south of this belt? In the northern 
hemisphere, in what belts did we find more of the active 
and progressive nations? To what race do they belong? 

9. Do we find sny sharp contrasts of climate in this 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 121 

belt as was found in the belt of 38° N. to 46° N. or the belt 
north of46°N.? Why not? 

10. Beside latitude, what two things help most power- 
fully to determine climate? Which has the greatest in- 
fluence in determining the productive value of a nation, 
climate and natural resources or the characteristics of 
the people? 

Sections for Special Study, Using for Each the 

Following Form: 

Study of Special Large Sections. 

1 . General location and surroundings, comparative area and popu- 
lation. Contour. 

2. Position of high and low lands with relation to direction of 
prevailing winds and position of large bodies of water. 

3. From a study of No. 2, determine amount of rainfall and ex- 
tremes of heat and cold. 

4. From a study of No. 3, for what purpose is the land best adapted ? 

5. From a study of No. 2 and No. 3, consider number and size of 
rivers, their falls, or rapids, the rapidity of the flow, and whether their 
mouths are deep and wide (estuary-like), or shallow and muddy (delta- 
like). (Be certain to see the practical value of each of the matters 
here determined). 

6. Great mineral products, especially iron and coal, their location 
with reference to each other, and to some convenient means of trans- 
portation. 

7. Considering Nos. 4, 5, and 6, what are the possible great in- 
dustries and their location? 

8. Great imports and exports with reason and cities especially so 
engaged. 

9. Cities built up by great industries, learning what in each case. 
Those established by being on some great trade route. 

10. Character of the people as to education, religion, similarity 
or dissimilarity and government. Capitol city or chief city. 



122 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Sections for Special Study. 

80. New England. 

81. Middle Atlantic States: New York, New Jer- 
sey, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, 
Virginia. 

82. Southern States: North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, 
Texas, Arkansas, Indian Territory, Oklahoma, Tennessee, 
Kentucky, Missouri. 

83. Central States: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, 
Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, South 
Dakota, North Dakota. 

84. Mountain States: Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, 
New Mexico. 

S5. Great Basin States: Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Ari- 
zona. 

86. Pacific States: Washington, Oregon, California. 

87. Alaska and Island possessions of United States. 

88. Canada and New Foundland. 

89. Mexico, Central America and West India Islands. 

90. North America as a Whole. 

91. Brazil. 

92. Argentina. 

93. South America as a Whole. 

94. British Isles. 

95. Germany. 

96. France and Belgium. 

97. Holland. . 

98. Northern Europe, (North of the Pyrenees, Alps, 
Carpathian and Caucasus Mountains) . 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 123 

99. Southern Europe. 

100. British India. 

101. Japan. 

102. China. 

103. Northern Asia, (North of Elburz, Hindu Kush and 
Himalaya Mountains). 

104. Southern Asia. 

105. East India Islands. 

106. Egypt. 

107. South Africa. 

108. Africa as a Whole. 

109. Australia. 

Suggested Outline for the Study of Mathematical 
Geography. 

1. Four proofs that the earth is a sphere. 

2. Three proofs that the earth rotates on its axis. 

3. Method used for measuring time. 

4. Necessity for International Date Line. Why placed where 
it is? Why not straight? 

5. Earth's equatorial diameter. Polar diameter. Why the dif- 
ference? 

6. Length of a degree of longitude at the Equator, in our latitude, 
at the Poles. 

7. Six important uses of the atmosphere. 

8. Probable height of the atmosphere and how estimated. Can 
eggs be cooked by boiling on a high mountain? Could eggs be cooked 
by frying? 

9. How the atmosphere causes twilight. 

10. Thickness of the earth's crust and how estimated. 

11. Cause for location of volcanoes. 

12. Age of low and high mountains. 

13. Soil is usually thick in valleys and thin on mountain sides. 
Explain. How is this connected with No. 12? 

14. How determine East, West, North? Which way is north at 
the North Pole? Which is east? 



124 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

15. Distinction between great and small circles on the earth. 
Select two places on the globe and find the distance between tiiem, 
first by measuring on the arc of a small circle and then by measuring 
on the arc of a great circle. Is there any difference? 

16. From what was learned in No. 5, how should distances on the 
earth be measured? Test this on the map of "one of the continents. 

17. Proof that the earth revolves in an orbit around the sun. Shape 
of the orbit. 

18. Position of the earth's axis with reference to a line perpen- 
dicular to the plane of its orbit. Is this relative position changed? 

19. What connection between the facts found in No. 18 and the 
zone boundaries? If the above inclination were 45° what would be the 
width of the North Temperate Zone? Of the Torrid Zone? 

20. With the facts called for in Nos. 17 and 18 in mind, where will 
the sun be oveijiead at noon on June 21, Sept. 22, Dec. 21, Mar. 21? 

21. Draw a line on the globe showing at what places it will be warm- 
est on the dates named in No. 20. 

22. How is the change of seasons brought about? 

23. Size of the moon, distance from the earth, and time required' 
to make one exact revolution around the earth. Is this a lunar month ? 
A Calendar month? 

24. Size of the sun, distance from the earth. Draw a diagram 
representing the sun as a shell and place the earth at the center of the 
sun and the moon the proper relative distance from the earth. What 
does this show about the size of the sun? 

25. Draw a diagram showing the sun at about the center of the 
earth's orbit and place the moon in such a position that its illuminated 
face would be entirely away from the earth, so that the half lighted 
face would be seen on the earth, so that the entire face would be visible. 
Give proper name to these phases. 

26. From diagram in No. 25 see when it would be possible for the 
moon's shadow to fall on the earth, when the moon might pass through 
the earth's shadow. Name these eclipses. 

27. Apply the knoAvledge gained in Nos. 25 and 26 to the attraction 
of the sun and moon upon the water of the earth in producing tides. 
WTien will Spring Tides occur? Neap Tides? How long from high 
water of one tide to the next high water? What will these tides 
make necessary in the construction of docks in all tidal ports? 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 125 

28. Some graphic way of representing the sun's distance from the 
earth. Does the sun rotate on its axis? The moon? 

29. Sun's distance from the earth in winter, in summer. 

30. Explain the place of the sun's rising and setting at different 
seasons. 

110. Mathematical Geography. 

Proofs that the earth is a sphere: circumnavigation, 
appearance of a ship at sea as it leaves the harbor in any 
direction, shape of the earth's shadow on the moon, shape 
assumed by a plastic body when left without interference. 

Proofs of the earth's rotation on its axis : direction taken 
by a body when falling from a great height, the plain 
of vibration of a pendulum, the daily rise of sun, star or 
moon. Measurement of tim.e. Necessity for international 
date line. What determines its location? Size of the 
earth: diameter, circumference, why flattened at the 
poles. Supposed height of the atmosphere how calcu- 
lated? How the atmosphere produces twilight, why 
the atmosphere remains with the earth. Thickness of the 
earth's crust, methods of estimating same. Bending, fold- 
ing and breaking of the earth's crust. Production and 
age of mountains. Where crust is weakest. Location of 
volcanoes. 

How to determine directions: east, west, north and 
south. What is east at one point may be west at another. 
What about directions at the pole? Distinction between 
great and small circles. Practical use of this distinction. 

Proofs of the earth's revolution in its orbit: Locate 
a fixed star and then compare this with its location 
after an interval of several weeks. 



126 MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Axis of the earth: incUnation from a perpendicular to 
the plane of the earth's orbit. This direction remains 
constant. How this fixes zone boundaries. If the inclina- 
tion of the axis were changed how it would affect the zone 
boundaries. In working out these problems, use the 
slated globe and have the children draw the necessary 
lines. In the same way, show that a change of seasons is 
produced by the inclination of the axis in connection 
with the revolution of the earth in its orbit. 

The moon: Size, distance from the earth, revolution 
in its orbit. Rotation on its axis. Phases of the moon. 

Tides. Kinds, spring and neap, caused by the attraction 
of the moon and sun. Observe when these two bodies 
act together and when opposed to each other. Frequency 
of the tides. Results from the tides in harbors and how 
this affects the construction of docks for the loading and 
unloading of boats. Opaque, without air or water. 

Eclipses. Kinds, sun and moon. In case of the former, 
may be total, partial or annular; of the latter, total or 
partial. Causes of each kind of eclipse. Use diagrams 
to show the relative size and distance of earth, moon and 
sun. 

Sun. Size, distance from the earth, how it produces 
light. Spots on the sun. Note distance of the earth 
from the sun in summer and in winter in both northern 
and southern hemispheres. Its seeming position when 
seen from different places on the earth at different times 
in the year. Cause of change in position in the place of 
rising and setting. 



MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 



127 



Food Products. 


Structural Material. 




Dairy Products. 




Lumber. 




Corn. 




Stone. 




Beef. 




Brick. 




Pork. 




Iron. 




Mutton. 




Steel. 




Wheat. 




Glass. 




Potatoes. 




Pottery. 




Fruits. 




Wood Pulp. 




Salt. 




Caoutchouc 




Spices. 




Gutta-percha. 




Tea. 




Leather. 




Coffee. 




Tile. 




Cocoa. 




Copper. 




Sugar. 




Zinc. 




Rice. 




Lead. 




Rye. 




Plumbago. 




Barley. 




Tin. 




Poultry. 




Nickel. 




Fish. 




Aluminum. 




Nuts. 








t 


Textiles. 




Flax. 


Cotton. 




Silk. 


Wool. 


Coarse 


Fibers. 

Fuels. 




Coal. 


Wood 


(see lumber). 


Petroleum 


Coke. 


Gas. 








Stimulants and Narcotics. 




Beer. 


Wine. 




Whiskey. 


Tobacco. 


Opium 


• 






Miscellaneous. 





Gold. 



Silver. 



Part IL— Language AYork. 

A young man who wishes to become a successful builder 
engages himself to a master and at once begins w^ork at 
some of the rougher labor and sets himself to learn, as 
rapidly as possible, what he should know about the necessary 
tools, the nature of the material upon which he is to work, 
and something of the forms of architecture, but keeps 
ever as his main motive the attainment of the practical 
skill necessary to a builder. Never does he once suppose 
that a theoretical study of tools, of building material and 
architectural style will give him the knowledge indispensable 
to the actual builder. Neither is he deceived into the 
belief that an exhaustive study of the mistakes of former 
builders will do this even if added to all that might be 
gained by tearing down many most reputable structures. 
He knows he must work, along constructive lines in 
order to realize his hopes. He must have theoretical 
knowledge but to know how to build he must build. 

So must he who would gain the skill of a master in the 
construction of English, do so by using it. If he is permit- 
ted to suppose that correctly selecting and naming the 
implements of thought is to give him the desired artistic 
toucli he is deceived. No less so will he be if he thinks to 
gain the same end by ever so careful a study of masterpieces 
in detail, bit by bit. Such studies may be helpful if con- 
sidered simply as aids to the great purpose of originating 
wholesome, worthy thoughts and expressing them in clear, 

forceful language. However much we may admire the 

129 



13) MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 

delicacy and strength of successful expression, we must ever 
remember that it is but secondary to the thought that de- 
mands it. Hence the most important and most difficult 
part in this work is to offer children such studies as have both 
intrinsic value and also the power of so rousing their inter- 
est that the power of expression is demanded by their own 
desire. Pursued in this way, the children constantly feel 
the need of adding to their power of expression. To reverse 
this order and present the mechanical side of language 
first is like insisting that a young man shall get and carry 
with him a ''kit of tools" when he has developed no desire to 
be a mechanic. It might be ''handy" if such an ambition 
should ever develop ! Let the children learn what they use 
at once, and learn it because they have need. The ideal 
teachmg is that which rouses a useful activity, demanding 
just what the teacher had previously decided would be 
best. The thought side of this subject, properly treated, 
will demand the somewhat arbitrary rules, or laws, of 
correct speech. All such laws are either a convenience 
or a necessity for a ready interpretation of language. 

Good thinking is, then, the essential thing in language, 
and this requires a theme worthy of thought. It presumes 
it is one about which the children have a body of knowledge 
and that the teacher has considered both the foregoing 
and also fully realizes that thinking is in no sense good that 
is not systematic. This being granted, the first and greatest 
effort of the teacher will be to have the children see the 
value of some logical plan for the subject to be considered. 
The subject, thus mutual^ agreed upon, will furnish, let us 
suppose, five sub-topics each one of which becomes a center 



MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 131 

of interest calling up the observations and knowledge of 
the children. Unaided, the thinking of the children would 
have been so chaotic and without point as to have had no 
educative value. It w^ould not have led to better thinking 
next time. For the purpose of helping timid children to 
forget themselves and gain confidence and freedom, 
miscellaneous chatter about dolls and babies, pet cats or 
dogs m.ay be quite Ihe wise thing but only because freedom 
and interest are necessary to accomplish the higher end. 

The value of continuity of interest is very great and 
should be utilized in all the work on this subject. A lesson 
on a subject of intrinsic value and genuine interest, followed 
by a lesson on some other disconnected subject of equal 
value and interest is not nearly so helpful as two lessons 
given on different, but connected parts of one theme. The 
cumulative value of a series of connected topics that to- 
gether constitute a piece of organized knowledge can hardly 
be overestimated. Language books usually lack this 
quality. Each chapter, or distinct exercise, is a purely 
artificial invention intended to exemplify some law of 
language and not in any way justified by the value of 
its content. Besides, the written language work should 
grow out of and be made to assist in gaining a more accurate 
and systematic knowledge of the matter read in literature 
and history, or that discussed in geography. 

In fact, the most serious difficulty is that neither teacher 
nor pupils have time to do, as such work should be done, 
the written work that would seem desirable. The oral 
discussion that should accompany the reading of any worthy 
book is too often neglected. Nothing provokes better or 



132 MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 

more helpful thinking. Such reading furnishes the oppor- 
tunity for tracing causes to their effects, of estimating 
motives, of seeing beauty of conduct to say nothing of the 
direct study of English as shown by the words and the 
sentence structure. In no other way can the real value 
of good literature be so completely realized and no other 
language work, oral or written, is superior to this. In the 
hands of a teacher who not only sees intellectually, but 
feels emotionally, the power and the beauty of the matter 
read, and who holds the discussion, logically, to the theme 
being considered, the children become most absorbed, 
express themselves with the most freedom and earnestness 
and make the entire exercise a delight to themselves as 
well as to others. This kind of language work cannot 
safely be neglected. Still it should be ever kept in mind 
that the teacher must, previously, have interpreted the 
piece of literature in a clear-headed and whole-hearted 
way or the greatest classic will be valueless to the children. 
Never permit children to write on a theme until they have 
a goodly store of accurate knowledge pertaining to it and also 
have a thoughtfully prepared outline as a framework. The 
knowledge may be gained in part, at least, by the independ- 
ent research of the children, but it should have undergone 
the testing and sifting of one or more recitations and the 
plan, at first and for some time, must be worked out by 
the teacher with the class. The teacher, however, should 
always have carefully considered the theme and decided 
on the outline before discussing it with the class. No 
theme worthy of consideration is so simple and no teacher 
is so well equipped that she can ever afford to disregard 



MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 133 

this suggestion. The simplest themes reveal unsuspected 
strength and beauty through earnest and sympathetic 
search. Beside, the mental vigor and insight that comes 
to the teacher from a fresh study of even an old subject, 
fills her labor with a real joy and it becomes both the guide 
and the inspiration of the children. This is especially 
dwelt upon because it is here that the work oftenest fails. 

If the work preparatory to composition is carefully 
done, as here suggested, the children will not disappoint 
us with slovenly work. It is demanding frequent TVTitten 
work without adequate preparation that inundates teachers 
desks with worthless results Let us stop it. Why con- 
tinue this self-invited misery^ Let papers for written 
language work be prepared not oftener than once a week 
or once in two weeks, but when they are prepared let us 
make much of them and require the children to do so. 
When a paper has revealed errors that the writer himself 
could have avoided if he had taken the trouble to do so, 
read no further, but return the paper for correction, or if 
necessary, for re-writing. Do this persistently, kindly but 
inexorably and, within one month, the written language 
work will have undergone a happy revolution. But do it. 

When papers are carefully prepared, they deserve con- 
scientious and intelligent reading and criticism. After 
this has been done by the teacher she should require each 
child to do what those criticisms demand as a training in 
English. This can be done only in part as a class exercise. 
Largely, this part of the work must be by individual contact 
of the pupil with the teacher. The child must be per- 
sonally shown his weaknesses and, if there are several such. 



134 MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 

it would be wise to select the most prominent for correction, 
leaving the others for future consideration. If it seems 
necessary to omit some recitations in order to do this 
individual work, it is certainly wise to do so. If this part ' 
of the work is not well done, all that has been done before 
will have little value. 

There is no reason why writing a composition should be 
more difficult or mmatural than telling a story that is well 
understood, or doing the work in recitation. Each recita- 
tion is a composition and should be plamied by the one 
reciting. Each recitation period should be carefully 
planned by both the children and the teacher. The teacher 
that so plans will make her assignments with direct refer- 
ence to the relation of the parts of the theme being con- 
sidered, and this will force a logical method of study, an 
end about which so much is said anei so little done. The 
language work may thus greatly aid the other studies of 
the course and, in turn, be greatly aided by them. 

The outline here given only slightly touches the thought 
side of language work. To consider it with any fullness 
would require a volume in itself. The suggestions already 
offered must suffice. The more readily to see the connec- 
tion between the language work and the reading, the books 
used for reading are named in connection with the lan- 
guage work of each grade. 

First Grade. 

The main work in this grade should be to aid the children 
in gaining the power of orderly thinking, and, so far as 
possible, the power to express this thought clearly by 



MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 135 

dramatic action, by plays or games, by drawings or by 
paper cuttings, as well as in writing and in speech. This 
will be done more largely by the use of stories than in any 
other way but the children should not be asked to tell the 
story which they had previously read or heard until the 
teacher has helped them to see the important parts of the 
story in logical order. This work should begin very early 
in the year. To expect a child to tell a story successfully 
without this preparation is to hope for the impossible. 
No lesson of the year is more valuable for the child than 
that of orderly thinking and doing, and none creates more 
interest with the child himself, if it is wisely presented. 
He early sees that he is gaining the power of both thinking 
and doing more effectively. The theme used will of 
necessity spring from the reading matter he is to use 
during the year. ''Aesop's Fables" will lend themselves 
very readily to any special work for which the teacher 
sees occasion or has the time. 

Learn the use of capital letters with the first word of 
every sentence and with every proper name there is occa- 
sion to write or spell, also that the words I and should 
always be capitals. Further, that every telling sentence 
should be followed by a period and every interrogative 
sentence by an interrogation point. 

READING FOR THE YEAR. 
First Grade. 

To be purchased by the pupils: 
Hiawatha Primer. 
In Maryland. 



136 MANUAL OF LANGUAGE, 

Furnished by the Board: 
Cyr's Prmier. 
Literary Primer. 
Stories for Children. 
Sunbonnet Babies. 
Riverside Classics, No. 59. 
Six Nursery Classics. 
Cyr's First Reader. 
Aesop's Fables, No. 1. 
Aesop's Fables, No. 2. 
Old Times Stories. 
Pollard's First Reader. 

LANGUAGE. 

Second Grade. 

The oral work in this grade, if properly presented, will 
be of much more value than the written and should be 
definitely planned and controlled. The suggestions made 
in first grade apply with equal force in this. Of course 
much more written work may be done and this may very 
appropriately be provided from the reading work and from 
any special stories given the room either by the teacher 
or superintendent. Do not limit the child's expression 
of thought to that of speech or writing, but include other 
forms named in the first grade. Have children write from 
dictation. 

The formal part of the year's work may consist of learning 
the use of the capital letter with the names of the days of 
the week, of any special days, of the names of the months, 
the first word of every line of poetry, the use of the period 



MANUAL OF LANGUAGE, 137 

in any abbreviations used, of the comma with an enumera- 
tion of particulars, of the apostrophe to denote possession 
and omission, of the exclamation point to denote surprise, 
and of the hyphen with an incomplete w^ord at the end 
of a line. Make lists, first of nouns that are used in both 
the singular and plural forms, w^here the latter is made by 
the addition of s, then of nouns ending in s, sh, ch, or x 
forming their plurals by adding es, then of nouns ending 
in f, fe, ff, ft, with their plural forms, then of nouns that 
form their plurals irregularly. Use the terms singular 
and plural and have the children use them. Proper use 
of is, are, was, were, has, and have. Proper use of a and 
an. Select qualifying adjectives that are changed to an 
adverbial form by the addition of ly. Write lists and 
teach the proper use of each form. In doing the work 
just named let it be the result of the children's observation 
of both written and oral language and have them draw the 
conclusions which would finally be embodied in the above 
rules of language. 

READING FOR THE YEAR. 

Second Grade. 

To be purchased by the pupils: 

Bow- Wow and Menv-Mew. 

Nature Myths and stories. 
Furnished by the Board: 

Cyr's Second Reader. 

Braider Straws. 

Classic Stories for Little Ones. 



138 MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 

Little Nature Stories. 

Robinson Crusoe. 

Stories of the United States. 

Big People and Little People of Other Lands. 

Third Grade. 

The pupils of this grade should write considerable matter 
from dictation and they will be able to do successfully 
both oral and written work in reproduction and in simple 
narration. Special stories that may be told to the grade 
and the historical reading required during the year will 
furnish excellent material for tli«se forms of composition. 
Let the written work that is done be for the purpose of 
gaining clearer and more correct views of the various 
things studied in the grade and not for its language training 
merely. What has already been said in regard to the 
necessary work m preparation for either oral or written 
language should be kept constantl}^ in mind. 

Points to be made in formal language work. Punctua- 
tion of dates and addresses, use of capital with all proper 
nouns, including geographical names, titles of books, and 
the names of the Deity. Proper form for vrriting a quota- 
tion, use of the period in writing all abbreviations and Roman 
numerals and at the close of an imperative sentence, l^se 
of the comma after the name of a person spoken to, before 
a short quotation, and before and after explaining expres- 
sions. Extend the use of the exclamation point to include 
other ideas than mere surprise, as sorrow, fear, anger. Use 
of the apostrophe in writmg contractions. 

Teach the correct possessive form for nouns in both 



MANUAL OF LANGUAGE, 139 

singular and plural, always requiring the child to think 
or write the plural form before attempting to give the 
possessive plural. Make more complete lists of the singular 
and plural forms of nouns than was required in the second 
grade and include nouns ending in y, when preceded by a 
vowel and w^hen preceded by a consonant. Of the irregular 
verbs most in use, teach the present, past and perfect forms 
and their proper use with both singular and plural subjects 
and with the helping verbs has, have, and had. Teach 
the correct forms of the personal pronouns I, you, he, she, 
and it with special reference to the obj ective. Teach how to 
write the plural of characters; such as, a (a's), 2 (2's). 
Carry the correct use of adjective^ and adverbial forms 
further than was done in the second grade. In arranging 
a plan for oral or written language, teach definitely and 
clearly the idea and use of a paragraph. Give special 
attention to double negatives and the correlation of either 
and or, neither and nor, and the correct use of as and like, 
in and into, on and upon, between and among, at and to. 
Teach the correct use of this and that, these and those, and 
that the word them can never be correctly used for either 
these or those. 

READING FOR THE YEAR. 
Thikd Grade. 

To be purchased by the pupils: 

Stepping Stones to Literature, No. 3. 
Editha's Burglar. 
Captain January. 



140 MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 

Furnished by the Board: 
Cyr's Third Reader. 
Letters from a Cat. 
Seaside and Wayside. 
Each and All. 
Seven Little Sisters. 
Stories of Colonial Children. 
Great American for Little Americans. 
Things Will Take a Turn. 

Fourth Grade. 

Continue, more fully than in the preceding grade, teaching 
the meaning and use of the paragraph, never forgetting 
the necessity of a plan, worked out by the teacher and 
children jointly, or by the children alone, according to 
which either oral or written work may be prepared. Re- 
quire only such written language work as will directly 
aid in gaining a more satisfactory grasp upon the regular 
studies pursued. Two qualities of good writing can be 
readily understood, by pupils of this grade and they should 
be helped to an understanding of them. These qualities are 
clearness and unity. The understanding and practice 
of these will be found quite as valuable in the every day 
recitation as in the more formal language exercises. 

Teach the distinction between direct and indirect quota- 
tions, letter writing, including the forms appropriate for 
business, social occasions and friendship. The parenthesis, 
the use of the comma after inverted expressions and after 
the word as when it introduces an example, and that a 



MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 141 

semicolon should be placed before the word as in the case 
just referred to. 

The distinction of subject and predicate. Make more 
extended lists of irregular verbs in the three forms indi- 
cated in the preceding grade, teaching the use of the perfect 
form with an auxiliary or helping verb, transitive and in- 
transitive verbs, prepositions, and have the children discover 
that transitive verbs and prepositions alone require the use 
of the objective form of the pronoun. Apply this especially 
with personal pronouns and the relative pronoun who. 
Distinguish between pronominal adjectives and adjective 
pronouns. Teach the predicate noun and pronoun with 
special reference to the correct form of the latter. Give 
special attention to the verbs lie, lay, sit, set, rise, raise, 
learn, teach, and do not use expect for think, clever for 
kind, had rather for would rather, splendid for pleasant, 
shall for will, get for have, or he don't for he doesn't. 
Make it plain that when a noun, modified by the word 
each or every, becomes the antecedent of a pronoun the 
latter should have the singular form. 

READING FOR THE YEAR. 
Fourth Grade. 

To be purchased by the pupils: 

New Era, Fourth Reader. 

Hoosier School Boy. 
Furnished by the Board: 

American History Stories, No. 1. 

Brooks and Brook Basins. 



142 MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 

Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago. 

Tales of Troy. 

The Story of Ulysses. 

Stories of American Pioneers. 

The Burglar's Daughter. 

Two Little Knights of Kentucky. 

Rambles of a Rat. 

Wilderness Ways. 

Fifth Grade . 

The reading required for this grade furnishes ample ^ 
occasion for written composition work in description, nar- 
ration or invention. The geography and the history de- 
mand quite an amount of written work for the purpose 
of strength and clearness of comprehension. Definite and 
more full instruction on the subject of clearness and 
unity in composition is needed. Continue the study of 
the paragraph and the planning of a theme for oral as 
well as written language work. 

Teach the use of capital letters in titles of honor or 
respect, also that a semicolon should be placed after yes 
sir, or no. sir, when they do not end the sentence, and 
before the words, as, viz, to-wit, namely, when used to 
introduce an example, that a dash is used to denote a 
sudden change of thought and that the colon should be 
placed before a long quotation or a formal enumeration 
of the particulars. Teach the use of the caret. 
I Teach the use of the comparative form of the adjective 
when but two things are spoken of. Continue drill upon 
the proper form of pronoun to be used as the object of a 



MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 143 

transitive verb or preposition. All parts of speech should 
be readily and correctly distinguished by the children 
before the end of this year. Great care is needed that 
these distinctions be readily comprehended. Definitions 
are not desired. Give special attention not to use stop 
for stay, love for hke, consider for think, plenty for plenti- 
ful, in for into, between for among, funny for strange or 
odd, fix for repair, some for somewhat, awful for very. 
See cautions in third and fourth grades. 

READING FOR THE YEAR. 

Fifth Grade. 

To be purchased by the pupils: 

Dog of Flanders. 

Stepping Stones to Literature, No. 4. 
Furnished by the Board: 

Rambles of a Rat. ' 

J. Cole. 

A Strike at Shane's. 

Story of the Middle Ages. 

Anderson's Fairy Tales. 

Bird's Christmas Carol. 

Children's Crusade. 

Sixth Grade. 

It is not necessary to repeat what has been said in the 
two grades preceding as to the source from which the writ- 
ten language work should be derived. No exercise needs 
to be prepared as a language exercise simply. The 



144 MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 

educative effect is greatly intensified by having a more 
powerful controlling motive than that of mere literary form. 
Teach the children not only to recognize the different 
parts of speech, but also to classify them. Give more 
attention than could be given in preceding grades to the 
different forms of the pronouns as to case, to the person 
and number of pronoims as determined by antecedents, to 
predicate nominatives and to the proper form of pronouns 
when they are the objects of transitive verbs and prepo- 
sitions. Review and drill directh^ upon the rules for 
capitals and punctuation heretofore given. 

READING FOR THE YEAR. 

Sixth Grade. 

To be purchased by the pupils: 

Melody. 

Stepping Stones to Literature, No. 5. 
Furnished by the Board: 

Story of the Greeks. 

Story of the Romans. 

Little Lame Prince. 

Montgomery's Beginners' History. 

The Gate of the Giant Scissors. 

Tangle wood Tales. 

Stories of English History. 

Seventh Grade. 

The work of this grade should include thorough drill in 
descriptive and narrative composition together with some" 
invention, and should, as in the previous grades, spring 



MaMUAL of language. 145 

from the work in history, reading and geography. More 
efficient work can now be done in estabhshing the children, 
not only in the more mechanical part of good composition, 
but in gaining a more forceful, clear and direct style of 
expression. Remember that the above remarks apply, as 
previously stated, to the oral as well as written composition. 
If this were kept in mind during the recitation work of the 
first seven grades the English- of the public schools would 
be revolutionized. The children have not sufficiently 
been helped to understand the great fundamental things 
that underlie good English. They have been too much 
bewildered by petty criticisms understood neither by them 
nor their teacher. 

The English, in part, retains the characteristics of inflect- 
ed languages and has certain words and special forms that 
may properly be designated as mode and tense signs. 
Have or has, used as an auxiliary, may properly be taught 
as a sign of the indicative present perfect, had as *a sign 
of the past perfect indicative, shall have or will have of the 
future perfect indicative. May or can may be taught as a 
sign of the present potential, may have or can have as a 
sign of the present perfect potential, might, could, should 
or would as a sign of the past potential, might have, 
could have, should have or would have of the past perfect 
potential. The special forms of the subjunctive should 
be definitely presented and compared with the conditional 
indicative. The children should be taught to analyze sim- 
ple, compound and complex sentences, but not of difficult 
construction. This will necessarily require a review of the 
parts of speech. 



146 MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 

Teach the use of the semicolon for the separation of the 
greater parts of a sentence when the less are separated 
by commas. When a long quotation has no formal words 
of introduction, it should be preceded by a semicolon. 

Give some drill of the forms especially noted in the fourth 
and fifth grades under the head of Give special attention/' 
etc. 

READING FOR THE YEAR. 
Seventh Grade. 

To be purchased by the pupils : 

Uncle Tom's Cabin. 
Furnished by the Board: 

The Man Without a Coimtry. 

King of the Golden River. 

Heroes of the Middle West. 

Pioneer History Stories. 

Polly Oliver's Problem. 

The Child of Urbino. 

Snow Bound. 

Eighth Grade. 
Maxwell's Advanced Grammar, 

READING FOR THE YEAR. 

To be purchased by the pupils: 

Dicken's Christmas Stories. 
Furnished by the Board: 

Silas Marner. 



MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 147 



Merchant of Venice. 

Evangeline. 

Vision of Sir Launfal. 

Seven Oaks. 

Brave Little Holland. 

Enoch Arden. 



RULES FOR PUNCTUATION.— Recapitulation. 
CAPITAL LETTERS. 

1. The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital 
letter. 

Note. — A sentence, preceded by an introductory word or clause, 
such as, Be it resolved, Be it enacted. Resolved, etc. begins with a 
capital letter notwithstanding the introductory word or words. 

2. The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital. 
Note. — The principle of this rule applies to any especially empha- 
sized thought in the sentence or to an important question. 

Example. One truth is clear ; Whatever is right. Ask yourself this 
question; Are you doing right? 

3. The first word of every line of poetrj^ should begin with a capital. 

4. Every proper noun should begin with a capital -letter. 

Note. — This applies to many common nouns when they become a 
part of the proper noun. 

Example. This is the Chicago Road and leads directly to Lake 
Michigan. Fox River, Rocky Mountains. 

Note. — The words north, south, east and west should begin with 
capitals when they mean sections of the country and not points of the 
compass. 

Example. Chicago, the largest city of the West, is west of the south 
end of Lake Michigan. 

Note. — This rule applies to the names of the days of the week and 
of the month but not to the seasons of the year. 

Note. — The words denoting the common family relations ; as, father, 
mother, cousin, aunt are considered proper nouns when they are used 
with the name of a person or without the possessive pronoun. 

Example. I had a letter from Mother to-day and also one from 
Cousin Charlie. When did you hear from your mother? 

Note. — The name of objects personified are proper nouns and come 
under this rule. 

Note, Most wor^ derived from proper nouns should be capitalized. 



148 MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 

5. All names of the Deity should begin Avith capital letters. 
Note. — All personal pronouns used in direct address referring to the 

Deity should be capitalized. When pronouns referring to tlie Deity 
are used with an antecedent they are not capitalized except to avoid 
confusion with pronouns referring to another antecedent. 

Examples. O Thou that hearest the mourner's prayer. 
O Lord and Master of us all! 
Whate'er our name or sign, , 

We own th}- way, we hear thy call, 
We test our lives by thine. — Whittier. 

6. Titles of honor, respect or office begin with capitals when used 
in a formal way or in connection with a proper name. 

7. The important words in titles of books should begin with cap- 
itals. 

Note. — Frequently all the letters in book titles are printed in capitals 
but they are never so written. 

8. The words I and O should always be capitals. 

PERIOD. 

1. A period should be placed after everj- imperative and declara- 
tive sentence. 

2. A period should form a part of ever}' aboreviation and Roman 
numeral. 

Note. — The above rule is often stated incorrectly. The period is not 
placed after an abbreviation or Roman numeral but constitutes a part of 
of it. Such expressions as 3d, 12th, 8vo, 16mo are not abbreviations. 

COMMA. 

1. Ever\- parenthetical or explanatory- expression should have a 
comma before and after it. 

Note. — This rule has a veiy broad application and should be verj- 
carefuUy studied. It includes VN'ords used in apposition, with all their 
modifiers. 

Example. When Jason, the son of the dethroned King of lolcus, 
was a little boy, he was sent anvaj from his parents. 

Note. — A relative clause that does not limit or restrict the meaning 
of the antecedent but does present some additional thought should 
be regarded as coming under this rule. 

Example. The man, who proved to be an escaped convict, was, 
nevertheless, an interesting speaker. 

Note. — This rule also applies to adverbs, some times said to be used 
independently, as the vrord nevertheless in the example above, 



MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 149 

ExampJe. He, too, passed the guard and others, also, that were 
with him. 

Note. — Expressions containing a word in the independent case, or 
case absolute, may be considered as coming under this rule. 

Example. Then, the appointed day having arrived, the Declara- 
tion was taken up and debated. 

2. A comma should be placed after a name used in direct address . 
Note. — A name used as above commonly introduces the sentence , but 

when the sentence is introduced by any other word a comma should 
be placed before and after the name. 

Example. Come, mj^ son, we will see what a new venture may do 
for us. 

3. A comma should be placed before and after titles of honor and 
respect. 

4. A comma should be placed after each of an enumeration of 
particulars when the conjunction is omitted. 

Example. The sea carried men, casks, spars, planks, bulwarks and 
heaps of toys into the boiling surge. 

5. When words or phrases are used in pairs, a comma should be 
placed after each pair. 

Example. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my 
hand and my heart to this vote. 

6. Words or phrases which are contrasted should be separated by 
commas. 

Example. We live in deeds, not years. 

There are few voices in the world, but many echoes. 

7. A comma should be placed before a short quotation. 

Note. — This rule should also cover expressions that are important and 
used as quotations although the words are the writers. 

Example. The question now is. How shall we know what are good 
books? 

8. A comma should be placed after the words as, viz, to-wit, 
namel3^, when they introduce an example. 

9. When there are several statements and one common verb, if the 
verb is omitted a comma should be used. 

Example. Carthage has crossed the Alps, Rome, the seas. 

10. A comma should be placed after an inverted expression. 
Note. The grammatical order of a sentence requires the important 

part to precede and the modifiers to follow; when this order is not 
followed, the parts are said to be inverted. 



150 MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 

Example. Because the doctor insisted on a change of scene, they 
took the patient to the seaside. 

Notwithstanding the failure, the effort deserved great praise. 

Note. — Many dependent and conditional clauses, introduced by the 
words, if, unless, though, precede the main part of the sentence. 

Example. If youth are taught how to think, they will soon learn 
what to think. 

Though He slay me, yet will I trust Him. 

SEMICOLON. 

1. A semicolon should be placed before a long quotation that has 
no formal words of introduction. 

2. A semicolon should be placed before the words, as, viz, to-wit, 
namely when used to introduce an example. 

3. A semicolon should be placed before an enumeration of partic- 
ulare merely mentioned without any words of introduction. 

Example. Sentences are of three khids ; simple, complex and com- 
pound. 

4. The members of a compound or complex sentence, when not 
closely connected in sense, are separated by a semicolon. 

Example. As we proceeded, the timid approach of tAvilight became 
more perceptible; the intense blue of the sky began to soften; the 
smaller stars went first to rest ; but the bright constellations of the west 
and north remained unchanged. 

COLON. 

When a long quotation or an enumeration of particulars are formally 
introduced they should be preceded by a colon. 

Example. The speaker's words were these: "The day has arrived 
when," etc. . 

The items of his account were as follows : "4 yds. of prints @ 6c," etc. 

INTERROGATION POINT. 

1. An interrogation point should follow every complete question. 
Note. — When the question consists of several parts, or when several 

questions are contained in one sentence, an interrogation point should 
follow each part provided the sense would require different answers, 
otherwise it should be at the close of the entire sentence. 

Example. What was the fate of Regulus ? of Hannibal? of Cleopatra? 
of Julius Caesar? 

2. The interrogation point is used to express irony or doubt of the 
truth of the statement. 

Example In the year 1805 (?), Irving made his first voyage across 
the Atlantic. 

iSo, he was a good (?) man? 



MANUAL OF LANGUAGE. 151 

EXCLAMATION POINT. 

1. An exclamation point should l)e placed after every word, phrase, 
or sentence expressing strong emotion. 

Example. Aha! aha! I have caught you this time! 

2. The exclamation point is used to express irony or sarcasm. 

Example. You set us a good (!) example, your own temper is so 
angelic ! 

DASH. 

1. The dash is used to mark sudden changes in thought and in con- 
struction. 

Example. Have j^ou ever seen — but of course you never have ! 

2. The dash is used to mark the omission of letters and figures. 

Example. Mrs. H , formerly Miss A , lives on B Street. 

He spent the winter of 1902-3 in. Boston. 

3. Dashes are used instead of the parenthesis. 

PARENTHESIS. 

1. The parenthesis is used to enclose expressions that have no es- 
sential connection with the rest of the sentence. 

BRACKETS. 

Brackets are used to enclose words or phrases entirely independent of 
the rest of the sentence. 

Note. — The words placed in brackets are comments, queries, cor- 
rections or directions inserted by some other person than the original 
writer or speaker. 

Example. He speaks of spending the Sabbath with them [whom?] 
as they were without a minister. 

Each received one in their [his] turn. 
[Enter Puck] O Queen, we salute thee ! 

HYPHEN. 

The hyphen is used to separate the parts of a compound word and 
to divide a word into syllables. 

APOSTROPHE. 

The apostrophe is used as the sign of the possessive case, also to de- 
note the intentional omission of a letter or letters and in forming the 
plurals of letters, figures and other characters. 

Example. In the line, were found four A's, three 6's and two-h's. 

The moon's calm beams shone o'er the earth. 



